In terms of the vastness of the territory, the Golden Horde was the largest state entity of the Middle Ages. Let us recall that the state of the descendants of Jochi included the entire Great Steppe from the Danube in the west to the Irtysh in the east; the entire state (Ulug Ulus, i.e., the «Great Ulus») was divided into two wings — the left (Kok-Orda) and the right (Ak-Orda) and into many smaller lots-possessions, also called uluses or hordes. Administratively, the Golden Horde Khan was subordinated to the possessions of all the princes from the house of Jochi; but this subordination did not always have a real meaning. In particular, the descendants of the Horde, the eldest son of Jochi, the rulers of the Kok Horde (Eastern Horde) only nominally recognized the authority of the khan who was sitting in the Barn. «From the very beginning, there has never been a case,» says Rashid al—Din’s Collection of Chronicles (the work was written between 1300-1307), «that anyone from the Horde clan who took his place went to the khans of the Batu clan, since they are distant from each other and are also independent sovereigns of their own ulus. But they used to consider the one who is Batu’s deputy as their sovereign and ruler, and they write their names at the top of their labels» [Rashid al-Din, vol. 2, p. 66].
Nominally, the rulers of the Kok Horde, centered in Sygnak, on the Syr Darya, maintained political dependence on the Khans of the Golden Horde in the first half of the 14th century. As far as is known, at that time only once, under Mubarak Khoja, the ruler of the Kok Horde attempted to become the sovereign of an independent state.: he allowed himself to mint coins in 728/1327–1328, 729/1328–1329 in a game with the title: «Sultan the just Mubarak Ho [ja], may God prolong his kingdom» [Saveliev, 1858, pp. 162-163; Markov, 1896, p. 528].
The coinage of the coin, which was the prerogative of the sovereign ruler at that time, could not but meet with protest from the Khan of the Golden Horde, who was considered the supreme head of the entire Juchi Ulus. The desire of the Golden Horde Khan Uzbek (ruled in 1313-1341) to return the descendants of the Horde to their former vassalage and the desire of the latter for full political independence caused the turmoil (Bulgak), which, according to Muin ad-Din Natanzi, a Timurid author of the early XV century, «is still known in Desht-i Kipchak.» In this struggle, the ruler of the Kok Horde, Mubarak-Khoja, was defeated by the Golden Horde Khan, fled and wandered homeless for several years in the lands and countries of the Kyrgyz and Altai, until he died there.
Here we should make a few notes about Jochid Uzbek Khan. G. A. Fedorov-Davydov, V. P. Yudin, V. L. Egorov speak about the illegal seizure of supreme power by Uzbek Khan and directly call him a «usurper». The definition is, of course, very impressive, but it is not only wrong in essence, but even raising such a question in relation to Genghisid is illegal.
The fact is that, according to the concept of the supreme power of the ancient Mongols, any member of the «golden family» of Genghis Khan had the right to rule if he was recognized by the majority of Altan Uruga as the most worthy in his qualities and approved by the kurultai of princes and the highest aristocracy. Further. Both in the Mongol Empire itself (Yeke Mongol Ulus) and in the ulus-states formed after its collapse, there were several (4-5) orders of succession of supreme power, and each order was recognized by political tradition as correct and the question of preference for one or another of the orders was decided each time taking into account specific circumstances (see: [Sultanov, 2002, pp. 83-86]). Therefore, as V. V. rightly noted. Barthold, an outstanding expert on the history of the East, is not correct to discuss the question of which of the Genghisids in one case or another had more right to the throne and whether the election of one or another khan was legitimate [Barthold, vol. 1, p. 109].
V. P. Yudin, interpreting the legendary nature of the news from «Genghis-nam» Utemish-hajji, the Khiva storyteller of the XVI century, calls Uzbek Khan a «false Genghisid» (so!). However, this statement contradicts the entire hitherto established scientific history of the Golden Horde. According to the ancient Mongol concept of power, any non-Chingizid claiming to be a khan was recognized not just as an ordinary state criminal, but as a rebel against the will of Eternal Heaven and was subject to immediate execution; and this rule was strictly enforced during the time of Uzbek Khan. Further. Uzbek Khan’s genealogy is well known to us from a reliable source, the Collection of Chronicles by Rashid al-Din (d. 1318); moreover, it is confirmed both by the news of Arab ambassadors to the Golden Horde and travelers of the 14th century, and by Timurid authors of the 15th century. Here is the genealogy of Uzbek Khan as transmitted by Rashid al-Din, a contemporary of Khan: Uzbek Khan is the son of Togrilch, the ninth son of Munk-Timur, the second son of Tukan, the second son of Batu, the second son of Jochi, the first son of Genghis Khan [Rashid al-Din, vol. 2, pp. 72-73].
Uzbek Khan spoke Mongolian and Turkic languages. Muslim authors characterize him as a man of handsome appearance, excellent disposition, distinguished by valor and courage combined with insight, reverence for the laws and regulations of Genghis Khan (Yasa va yusun).
The coming to power of the young prince Uzbek was prepared by those circles of the Genghisids and the Turkic-Mongolian nomadic aristocracy who stood for the Islamization and centralization of the state. Uzbek Khan fully justified their hopes and aspirations. Without going into details, we will note here only three circumstances of the reign of Uzbek Khan.
- In 1321, Uzbek Khan converted to Islam, and at the same time adopted the Muslim name Muhammad, became known as Sultan Muhammad Uzbek Khan and made Islam the official religion of the Golden Horde state (for more information, see below).
- It was during the reign of Uzbek Khan that, when describing the events of 1335 in the Golden Horde, the word Uzbekian (Uzbeks, Uzbeks) and the phrase Mamlakat-i Uzbeks (the state of Uzbeks) first appear in Muslim sources. Gradually, the name of the Muslim ruler of the Golden Horde, Uzbek Khan, becomes the collective name of the diverse population of the Juchi Ulus (for more information, see above).
- Under the rule of Uzbek Khan, the khan’s power was strengthened, political centralization increased, and new cities appeared, one of which was Sarai al-Jadid (its remains are located near the village of Tsarev, Volgograd region), which became the second capital of the Golden Horde state. Uzbek Khan, a Sunni Muslim, was buried in Sarai al-Jadida, which was destroyed in 1395 by the troops of Emir Timur (ruled in Central Asia in 1370-1405).
In the Golden Horde, the khan’s power was quite strong even under the rule of Uzbek’s son Janibek Khan (1342-1357). After Janibek, his son Berdibek took the throne (ruled in 1357-1359). He was power-hungry and distinguished by extreme cruelty. According to the author of «Muntahab at-tawarih-i Muini» (written in 1413) and «Muizz al-ansab» (written in 1426), Berdibek, having become khan, killed most of the princes of the Juchi Ulus, who were his close relatives [Muizz al-ansab, l. 22a]. It is said that one of his only-born brothers, who was only 8 months old, was carried in the arms of khansha (queen) Taydula-khatun and asked him to spare this innocent child. Berdibek took it from her hands, hit it to the ground and killed it [SMIZO, vol. 2, p. 129].
The policy of physical extermination of the sultans (since the 14th century in the Jochi Ulus and in the Chagatai ulus, the word sultan became the title of every member of the dynasty descended from Genghis Khan) led to the fact that after the death of Berdibek in 1359, there was no representative of the Jochid branch, who were related in a direct line from Batu (d. 1255). A period of troubles and palace coups begins in the Golden Horde: in the 60s and 70s of the 14th century. Many descendants of Jochi seized power in the state, wresting it from each other, and some of them ruled for six months, others for a year, only some for two, at most three years. The descendants of the Horde and Tukai-Timur, i.e. the sultans of the Kok Orda (Eastern Horde), took an active part in this struggle for supreme power in the Jochi Ulus, gradually capturing Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, for a longer and longer period.
In the course of these political troubles, a number of independent possessions began to form on the territory of the Juchiev Ulus, headed by local rulers who ruled simultaneously with the khan, who was sitting in a Barn. So, around 1359, a new political entity, the Moldavian Principality, was formed on the territory of the Pruto-Dniester interfluve, which was the marginal western ulus of the Golden Horde. The political situation in the country has led to territorial losses in the south-east. In particular, in 1361. In Khorezm (lower Amu Darya), a dynasty independent of the Golden Horde, called Sufi, arose after the founder of the dynasty, Husayn Sufi, from the Turkified Mongol Kungrat tribe; these rulers minted coins without their names, with only an Arabic inscription: al-mulk li-llahi («power belongs to God»). The subsequent fate of Khorezm turned out like this. In 1379, it was conquered by Emir Timur, but in the early 80s of the XIV century. Toktamysh Khan reunited Khorezm with the Volga region. However, in 1388 Timur conquered Khorezm again. In the XV century . Khorezm was then in the possession of the khans of the Golden Horde, then in the possession of the Timurids, then in the possession of the local Sufi dynasty. At the beginning of the 16th century, the country passed into the possession of the Shibanids, descendants of Shiban, the son of Jochi, and the Khanate of Khiva was formed there.
After the death of Berdibek, the last Golden Horde khan from the house of Batu, the sultans of the Kok Horde also separated from the Golden Horde, whose power extended to all the southeastern borders of the Juchi Ulus. The Western Horde (Ak-Horde) split into several independent parts: The Lower Volga region was controlled by the Sarai khans, the Black Sea region and the Crimea by Emir Mamai, Volga Bulgaria by Tsarevich Bulat Timur, and then Asan, etc.
In the mid-70s of the 14th century, the head of the Kok Horde (Eastern Horde), Urus Khan (died 1377), acted as the unifier of the entire Juchi Ulus. Although he managed to capture the capital of the Golden Horde, the city of Sarai, he failed to retain supreme power and in 777/1375–1376 he returned to the shores of the Syr Darya, to his native possessions. What Urus Khan, a descendant of the Horde, failed to do was accomplished in the 80s of the 14th century by another representative of the Kok Horde, the young Mangyshlak prince Toktamysh, a descendant of Tukai Timur, the son of Jochi.
In 1378, Toktamysh Sultan, with the support of the ruler of Central Asia, Emir Timur, was elevated to the khan’s throne in Sygnak (on the Syr Darya), the capital of the princes of the Kok Horde (the left wing of the Juchiev Ulus). From there, Toktamysh went to war with the pretenders to the Golden Horde throne (and again with the support of Emir Timur), took over the capital of the Golden Horde. Soon he managed to unite all the possessions of the Jochids into one whole and restore a strong khan’s power in the country. Toktamysh had the temerity to go to war with his former protege, Emir Timur, and this war, which lasted several years, ended in 1395. the complete defeat and deposition of the Golden Horde Khan. Toktamysh never returned to the throne of the entire Jochi Ulus, and he died, according to some reports, in 1404, according to others, in 1406, near Tyumen («nizina», Turkic; this was also the name of the area in the lower reaches of the Terek River at that time), during a battle with the troops of the Golden Horde Khan Shadibek.
The beginning of the XV century brought forward several more unifiers of the Juchiev Ulus. However, after Toktamysh, no one else managed to achieve power that would be recognized throughout the entire Jochi Ulus. Moreover, after the 30s of the XV century. The Golden Horde state centered on the lower Volga finally collapsed and several new Turkic states were formed on its ruins: the Crimean Khanate, the Kazan Khanate, and the Astrakhan Khanate. The Siberian Khanate, the Kazakh Khanate, as well as a number of other political units — the Great Horde (in the steppes between the Volga and the Dnieper), the Nogai Horde (centered in the area along the lower reaches of the Yaik).
The historical fate of all of the above—mentioned political entities turned out to be closely linked to the fate of Russia, which, having completely freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke in the second half of the 15th century, turned into a strong state with its center in Moscow in the 16th century. Russia’s interaction with the political heirs of the Golden Horde state led to the fact that all of them (each at one time) were incorporated into the Russian state. Here is the main chronology of this incorporation and the gradual transformation of the Muscovite Kingdom into a multinational and multi-confessional Russian state with extensive Asian possessions to the east, south and southeast of the core of the Russian state proper.
On October 2, 1552, after a two-month siege, Russian troops led by Ivan the Terrible occupied Kazan, and the independent existence of the Kazan Khanate ended, the founder of which is considered to be Jochid Ulug-Muhammad Khan (d. 1446). The liquidation of the Kazan Khanate, which stood at the easternmost borders of the Moscow Kingdom, predetermined the fate of the Astrakhan Khanate, a country ruled by descendants of Tukai-Timur, the son of Jochi. In August 1556, Astrakhan (actually Khadji Tarkhan) was conquered by Russian troops, and the Astrakhan Khanate ceased to exist.
Thus, in 1552-1556, the entire Middle and Lower Volga region was annexed to Russia and the so—called Kazan Palace (order) was created to manage this new territory, an institution responsible for all administrative, military, financial, and judicial matters in the annexed possessions.
On August 20, 1598, the Russians inflicted a decisive defeat on the descendant of Shiban, the son of Jochi, Kuchum, the last «Tatar» khan of Siberia, and incorporated the Siberian Khanate with its capital in Isker (near the confluence of the Tobol with the Irtysh) into the Moscow state. The new territory, Western Siberia— was also administratively subordinated to the Kazan Palace. At the beginning of the 17th century, the political significance of the Nogai people, whose center was the city of Saraichik (lit. ?Maly Sarai’), founded by the Jochids in the second half of the 13th century at the mouth of the Yaik (approximately 60 km above modern Guryev). The Kazakh Khanate, founded in 875/1470-1471 by two sultans, Giray and Janibek, descendants of the Horde, the eldest son of Jochi, now became the immediate neighbor of the Russian state in the southeast.
Of all the ethnopolitical formations of the Jochids of the post-Golden Horde period, it was the state of the Kazakh sultans, as well as the Crimean Khanate, that lasted the longest. The end of the rule of the Giray dynasty in Crimea (named after its founder Khadji Giray, a descendant of Tukai Timur, son of Jochi) and the annexation of the peninsula to the Russian Empire date back to 1783; the last of the Gireys, who bore the title of Khan, Shagin Giray, left the country and died in a foreign land. The annexation of Kazakhstan to Russia, which began in the 30s of the XVIII century, for a number of reasons dragged on for many, many decades and ended only in the 60s of the XIX century.
It is noteworthy that the expansion of the sphere of the Russian state to the south (to the Black Sea and the Caucasus inclusive), east (to the Pacific Ocean) and southeast (to Central Asia and Kazakhstan inclusive) was accompanied by a powerful migration flow of the Russian population to new lands. So, from the second half of the 16th century, the era of Russian multinational and multi-confessional statehood began, and at the same time, a new experience of military-political, socio—economic, etc. integration of the Eurasian space — the Russian–Turkic (XVI-XX centuries), instead of the former Mongol–Turkic (XIII-XV centuries).