As is known, the geographical name «Dasht-i Kypchak» is understood in Old Russian chronicles as the «Cumans’ steppe» or, according to Russian sources, as the Kyrgyz steppes from the Urals to Siberia, the Aral Sea basin and the lower reaches of the Seyhun (Syr Darya). In Persian and Arabic narrative sources dating back to the 11th-15th centuries, the names kybchak, khikhchak, kichchak, kepchak, khifchak are found, denoting deserts and steppes starting from the lower reaches of the Seyhun and Lake Balkhash and stretching to the shores of the Don in Eastern Europe. According to a number of historians, they are connected with the name of Turkic-speaking ethnoses — Kypchaks, who settled in this vast steppe area of Eurasia. The basis of this population were nomadic cattle herders, whose life still retained strong vestiges of the tribal system. The Kypchaks united tribes and peoples of different origins, which had formed here over many centuries.
In this regard, the ethnonym «Kypchak» has at least three main meanings:
First, it is one of the tribal names common among many Turkic ethnic groups.
Secondly, in historical science, the ethnonym «Kypchak» is used for generalized designation of peoples and mainly languages belonging to the Kypchak subgroup of Turkic languages.
Thirdly, historical science implies under the name «Kypchak» an association of Turkic tribes, which was headed by Kypchaks, and this association of Kypchaks was so strong that the vast territory controlled by them was called «Dasht-i Kypchak».
In history, the name «Dasht-i Kypchak» was first used by the Persian poet Nasir Khosrow (1004-1088) — after the Turkic tribes of Kypchaks in 1030 from the banks of the Irtysh River migrated towards Khorezm. Since then, the Kypchak steppe has been divided into two parts: eastern and western.
The eastern part starts from the lower reaches of Seyhun and Ulug-tag and Kuchak-tag mountains, from the west it reaches the lands of Gugsard tribes subordinated to Batu Khan, from the north — to the lands of Uzbeks subordinated to Sheibani Khan, and from there to the khans of Chagatai ulus, in the south to the Karakum sands and Alexaruski mountains.
Western Dasht-i Kypchak are the territories where the Don and Volga rivers join, in the east they reach the Aral Mountains and the Caspian Sea, in the west to the Danube River, and in the south to the Black Sea.
The author of the historical work «Mihman-name-yi Bukhara» — «Notes of the Bukhara Guest» Fazlullah ibn Ruzbihan Isfahani, known as Khoja Mullah Isfahani, who accompanied Sheibani-khan in all his campaigns, defines «Dasht-i Kypchak» as follows: «One edge of the possessions borders on the ocean (Caspian Sea), the other with Turkestan, the third with Derbend, the fourth with Khorezm and the fifth with Astarabad (now a city in Iran. — A.K.)».
The author of the historical and geographical work «Bahr al-asrar fi manakib al-ahyar» — «The Sea of Secrets concerning the Valor of the Noble» Mahmud ibn Wali writes that «Dasht-i Kypchak … lies to the north of the Khazar Sea (Caspian Sea — A.K.). There are few towns and villages in it… Its famous cities are: Khazar, Burtas, Saray Batu, Sarir az-zahab and Hadji Tarkhan, (more) known (under the name) Khashtaran… The main part of Dasht-i Kypchak is desert. The extent of it is a month’s journey.»
In this vast area for a long period of time nomadic Turkic and then Turkic-Mongolian tribes roamed in summer between the foothills of the Urals and the rivers Tobol, Ural, Ilek, Irgiz, and in winter — in the basin of the Aral Sea along the rivers Chuysuu, Sarysuu and in the lower reaches of Seyhun.
The author of the work «Mihman-name-yi Bukhara» writes that «Dasht-i Kypchak is equal to six hundred farsakhs of land. Most of it is covered with rivers… Most of the trees of this country are birch trees… This vast steppe is a summer camp, and on summer days, the Kyrgyz occupy places on the outskirts, sides and borders of the steppe…. Each of their sultans has in his possession and subordination a certain locality of this area… When the autumn season comes, the weather in that country becomes cold and heavy snows fall, then, of course, the Kyrgyz for wintering go from the steppe to winter camps…. The place of their wintering is the coast of the Seyhun River, which is called Sir… The length of the banks of the Seyhun, on which they settle, exceeds three hundred farsakhs».
As is known, the life of nomads has always been connected with constant movement with cattle to new pastures. Sometimes such transitions reached about 1000 kilometers.
After the Mongol conquest in the XIII century, Dasht-i Kipchak became part of the ulus of the eldest son of Chyngyz-khan, being called Kyok-Orda. The isolation of Ak-Orda and its separation from the general structure of the Golden Horde as a semi-independent political unit occurred in the late XIII — early XIV century, which coincided with the reign of the Golden Horde Khan Tokhta (1290-1312), when the ulus Juchi broke up into two parts — Ak-Orda and Kyok-Orda. The eastern part, called Ak-Orda, was divided between Juchi’s sons Horde and Sheiban. To the north of the Syr Darya, between the rivers Yaik (Ural), Irtysh and Chu was Sheiban’s possession, known to Muslim authors as «Dasht-i Kipchak».
In the 70s of the XIV century the struggle between Urus-khan (1361-1375) and the Khan of the Golden Horde — Toktomush-khan and Emir Temir who supported him, then the struggle between Toktomush-khan and Temir accelerated the process of political fragmentation of the Golden Horde.
It should be noted that Toktomush-khan was the last khan who managed to temporarily retain power in both the Golden and White Hordes. However, in 1395 the campaign of Emir Temir, which put an end to the power of the Golden Horde state, brought great changes in the life of the nomads of the Golden Horde. According to historical work «Zafar-name» by Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yezdi, Emir Temir with 600 thousand army made a crushing blow to Toktomush-khan.
The historian Ibn Arabshah, describing the former life of Dasht-i Kypchak, speaks of it as a country inhabited by rich livestock, safe throughout its territory. This author also writes that after the devastating invasion of Emir Temir «in those areas from Khorezm to Crimea none of those peoples move and live and there is no other livestock there except steppe animals».
Mahmud ibn Wali also confirms that «during the time of Emir Temir, as a result of the raid and plunder of the Chagatai army, most of those lands became desolate».
The decline of economic activity of Dasht-i Kypchak caused by Temir’s campaigns contributed to the political fragmentation of its territory. Dasht-i Kypchak split into several uluses hostile to each other. In the first half of the 15th century, the Nogai (Mangit) ulus led by Edigei and the Sheiban ulus of the Sheiban family were the most extensive. Endless wars of tribes and uluses in Ak-Orda, which were often accompanied by robbing each other, devastated their possessions. In Persian-language sources of the XIII-XIV centuries, the population of the Djuchi ulus is called Mongols, Tatars, Turks and Kipchaks.
The tribes inhabiting the territory of Mogulstan called themselves Moguls. The ruler of Mogulstan Yunus Khan (1462-1487), taking advantage of the Timurid internecine wars, annexed Tashkent to his possessions, which became his main residence. However, most of Yunus Khan’s domains, inhabited by nomads, separated from him, recognizing Ahmed, Yunus’s younger son, as his khan. Kashgar, which had separated from Mogulstan, was soon lost. After the death of Yunus, his eldest son Mahmud, who shared power with Ahmed, became the nominal head of state.
Within Mogolstan, in the mountains of the southern shore of Issyk-Kul, in the middle of the XV century. mentioned and Kyrgyz, whose migration to this area from the Yenisei, according to some data, began in the X century. Kyrgyz also gradually merged in the new place with the indigenous inhabitants of Tengir-Too (Tien-Shan), passing them their ethnic name.
Persian-language works contain valuable information about the nomadic tribes of Dasht-i Kypchak and their relations with neighboring tribes at the turn of the XIV and XV centuries.
); «Kitab tajziyat al-amsar wa tazjiyat al-a’sar» by Sharafaddin ‘Abdallah Sharaf Shirazi ibn ‘Izz al-Din Fazlallah Yazdi (Khoja Shihabaddin) (written in 728/1372).
Among the fifteenth-century sources we can mention «Muntahab at-tawarikh-i Mu’ini» by Mu’in al-Din Natanzi (written in 1413-14); «Zafar-name-yi Temuri» by Sharaf al-Din ‘Ali ibn Shaykh Haji Yazdi (written in 829/1424-25. ); Mirza Ulugbek’s «Tarikhi arba’-i ulus» (written no later than 1425); Mirza Ulugbek’s «Tarikh-i Haji Yazdi» (written in 829/1424-25). ); «Tarikh-i Hafiz-i Abru» by Shihab al-Din ‘Abd Allah ibn Lutfullah ibn ‘Abd al-Rashid al-Harawi; «Mujmal-i Fasihi» by Fasih Ahmad ibn Jalal al-Din Muhammad; «Matla’-i sa’dain wa majma’-i l-bahrayn» [1] Kamal al-Din ‘Abd al-Razzaq Samarkandi.
For the study of the history of the Kyrgyz people, of particular interest are those sections of the works that describe Turkic and Mongol tribes, the history of the Mongols and their conquests, Mongol khans and their successors up to and including Emir Temir.
As usual, they tell the history of the legendary Turk Khan ibn Yafas and his descendants who ruled in Turkestan (Abu-Jahan, Dibokuikhan, Kuyuk-khan, etc.), Tatar-Mongol and Turkic clans and their rulers (Mogul-khan, Karakhan, Oguz-khan, etc.). The order of palace ceremonies for the reception of guests in the time of Oguz-khan, the structure of Turkic troops, the structure of ulus, etc. are described. Judging by the information about Turkic and Mongolian clans, they lived so close that their family trees were closely intertwined. There are records of the legendary foremother of the Turkic-Mongol peoples Alankuva (Alangoa) and her descendants, including such rulers as Buzunzhar kaan, Bukakhan, Dutimen khan, Kabulkhan, Baisungurkhan, Borton bahadur, Yasugai bahadur.
In the chapters where the history of Chyngyz-khan (d. 1227) is presented, there is interesting information about the structure of Mongolian troops, about the white banners of Chyngyz-khan of nine steps, about the order of kurultai and reception ceremonies.
Attention is paid to 39 khans — descendants of the first son of Chyngyz-khan — Dzhuchi-khan [2], who ruled in Dasht-i Kypchak.
According to the work «Jami’ at-tawarikh», the vast lands conquered to the west of Mongolia were divided among the eldest sons of Chyngyz-khan. The territory of Kyrgyzstan became a part of three Mongol uluses: the steppe northern expanses — in the ulus of Djuchi (d. 1227), Southern and South-Eastern Kazakhstan — in the ulus of Chagatai [3] (d. 1242), and the northeastern lands — in the ulus of Ugedei (d. 1241).
As is known, the territory of Kyrgyzstan was part of Mogolstan (Mogolistan). The formation of Mogolstan is associated with the collapse of the Chagatai ulus. In the middle of the XIV century Chagatai ulus split into two parts — western and eastern. In the western possessions — Maverannahr — the Chagatai clan lost its dominance, and in fact the power was in the hands of Turkic-Mongol emirs, among whom Emir Temir (1370-1405) stood out.
In the eastern part khans from the Chagatai family were erected. Nomads of east part of Chagatai ulus called themselves Moguls. Then the Persian geographical name Mogolstan was formed from this term.
When writing the work «Jami’ at-tawarikh» the author used the Mongolian official chronicle kept in the khan’s treasury, as well as other Mongolian legends through the intermediary of the nobleman Pulad Chansang [4]. The source is well known in the scientific world, there are editions of the text and many translations into other languages [5]. In the first volume of «Jami’ at-tawarikh» it is emphasized that those tribes in the domains of the Mongol Empire, which are Mongols, and are the dominant ethnic element, in reality all or almost all are Turks [6]. Turkic tribes since the rise of the Mongols for prestige purposes began to rank themselves among them and call themselves by their names.
Rashid ad-Din wrote that «because of their power other tribes in these areas became known by their name, so that most of the Turks (now) are called Mongols. Just as before the Tatars became the winners, all (others) began to be called Tatars» [7].
According to Rashid ad-Din, Chyngyz-khan had four sons and five daughters from his elder wife Borte. «These four sons of Chyngyz-khan were intelligent, full of dignity and perfect, brave and courageous, valued by their father, army and people. They served the state of Chyngyz-khan as four main pillars. To each of them he prepared a state and called them «four kuluks», and «kuluks» are called those of people, horses and others who stand out, surpass others and stand ahead of them» [8]. Rashid ad-Din gives the names of 13 sons of Juchi-khan and their famous descendants.
In Dasht-i Kypchak the process of merging of Mongols with the local population and formation of new ethnic structures was especially intensive. In the political life of the countries conquered by the Mongols, the state idea according to which the khan was only Chingyzid [9] was firmly established.
The estates were to serve for the sons of Chyngyz-khan only as a source of income, remaining subordinate to the head of the empire. But the vastness of the Mongolian power, remoteness from the all-imperial center on the Orkhon led to the fact that the real power was only local power.
According to Rashid ad-Din, Orda-Ejen, Juchi’s son, with his army and four brothers — Udur, Tukay-Timur, Shinkgkum, Singkum — constituted the left wing of the Juchid army, and «they are still called the tsareviches of the left wing». The lands between Batu’s possessions and Horde-Ejen’s appanage were granted to another son, Shiban, so that he spent the summer east of the Yaik, on the banks of the Irgiz, Ori, Ilek up to the Ural Mountains, and the winter — in Arakum, Karakum, on the banks of the Syr Darya and at the mouths of the Chusuu and Saryuu. Under Shiban’s power Batu gave the people consisting of 15 thousand families, having allocated to him from ancient clans four main tribes — Kushchi, Naiman, Karlyk, Buirak. The army of Shiban and his descendants became part of the right wing of the army of ulus Djuchi [10].
The history of the ulus system in the Golden Horde state is connected with the division of the state into hordes, in particular, into Kyok-Ordo and Ak-Ordo. The name Kyok-Ordo was officially used during Juchi’s lifetime to designate his headquarters, located in the upper reaches of the Irtysh, near Lake Alakul; later the term Kyok-Ordo was applied to the descendants of Ordo-Ejen and their possessions, which extended from the upper reaches of the Irtysh further westward to the Ili and Syr Darya; the Juchids of Kyok-Ordo were called «tsareviches of the left wing».
The name Ak-Ordo was applied to the area that constituted the main part of the possessions of the descendants of Shiban. The army of tsareviches Ak-Ordo was a part of the right wing of the Djuchid army. The rulers of Kyok-Orda were actually independent and did not go to the Kurultai to the Golden Horde khans, although nominally they recognized them as their khans.
In each given historical period, depending on the political situation, the borders between the Dzhuchid appanages narrowed or, on the contrary, expanded. According to the work of Mu’in ad-Din Natanzi, in the XIV century the possessions of the descendants of Orda-Ejen included, in addition to Sygnak, the towns of Saraychuk, Sauran, Jend, Barchkend, and Otrar, where the sultans of this dynasty of Chingizids erected buildings and charitable institutions. The exact name of the work by Mu’in al-Din Natanzi, which has survived to our days, is unknown. It is known in scholarly circles under the name «Iskander’s Anonymous». There is also a second list called «Muntahab at-tawarikh-i Mu’ini», which is dedicated to Timurid Shahrukh (807/1405-850/1447).
Urus Khan was from the descendants of the «tsareviches of the left wing» of the ulus Juchi and, according to Mu’in ad-Din Natanzi, he built buildings in his capital, Sygnak, following the example of his grandfather Orda-Ejen, who built «most of the madrassahs, khanakehs, mosques and other charitable institutions that are located in Otrar, Sauran, Jend and Barchkend» [11].
Kyok-Orda after disintegration of ulus Djuchi carried out authority over the grounds located between Volga and Dnepr, including Crimea, Northern Caucasus, Bulgar and northern part of Khorezm, and was still called Golden Horde. Ak-Orda was subordinated to the lands located in the lower and middle reaches of the Syr Darya, and a vast territory located north of the Syr Darya and the Aral Sea [12].
In the second half of the XIV century, skillfully using the then intensified turmoil in the Golden Horde, Husayn Sufi of the Kungrat tribe seized power in Khorezm and began to mint coins in his own name.
According to Mu’in ad-Din Natanzi, Husayn Sufi was the son of the influential emir of the Altyn Ordo Nangadai, who was killed in Saray in 1361 by Keldibek.
In 1380-1381. Toktomush khan [13] succeeded in uniting Ak-Ordo and Kok-Ordo. He aspired to restore former might of Golden Horde, and not unsuccessfully. The Volga region from Hadji-tarkhan (Astrakhan) to Bulgars, Northern Caucasus, areas in the west from Volga and Crimea [14] passed to Toktomush khan.
In 1383-84 — 1387. Toktomush khan was subordinated to Khorezm. The power of Toktomush khan seemed relatively stable. However, he had serious rivals, in particular the Golden Horde Kutlug-Timur [15], who in 1388 was captured by Toktomush khan, but on his way to Sarai fled to Samarkand.
In June 1391 there was a battle in the valley of the river Kunduzcha between Emir Temir and Toktomush khan, the latter, having suffered defeat, fled from the battlefield. The battle on the bank of the Terek River in 1395 also ended with the defeat of Toktomush-khan, after which he fled to the Bulgarian steppes. Emir Temir took possession of Saray and plundered it. However Toktomush-khan in the same year has returned Saray and tried to strengthen the position in Golden Horde. In 1396 Kutlug-Timur again defeated him and took Sarai [16].
In the beginning of 1406 Edigei [17], emir of al-umar Shadybek (1400-1407), captured Khorezm. Emir Muzoke fled, and Edigei appointed as ruler of Khorezm a certain Golden Horde emir Enke, who was replaced by Kalja under Bulad Khan (1408-09 — 1410) [18]. In 1408-09 Shahrukh, having defeated Khalil-Sultan (son of Miranshah), established his power in Maverannahr as well.
On this occasion in Samarkand and then in Herat he organized great celebrations, which were attended by ambassadors sent from Khorezm by Edigei on his own behalf and on behalf of Bulad Khan [19]. «From Dasht-i Kypchak and Uzbek ulus with an ambassadorial mission arrived people of Bulad-khan, Emir Idiku bahadir and Emir Ibsiy and presented royal gifts in the form of gyrfalcons and (other) birds of prey. The contents of the embassy were as follows: «His Excellency is known in all countries of the world, including Dasht-i Kypchak, for his good-nature and good deeds. In the days when the glorious lands of Samarkand, which are the foundation of the state and the source of happiness, are illuminated by the radiance of the new blessed ascension, these vilayets have deemed it necessary to reiterate their congratulations. Our request is that bilateral ties be restored from now on, and that harmony and friendship be established between the two sides.» [20].
The ambassadors were met by Shahrukh with great honor, and with them Shahrukh’s ambassadors headed by Emir Hasanko were sent to Khorezm and Dasht-i Kypchak. With Herat ambassadors were also sent caravans of gifts to Bulad Khan, Edigei and Isabek [21], and Shahrukh asked Edigei to consent to the marriage with his daughter of his son — Muhammad-Juqi [22].
The fact of matchmaking testifies to the desire of both states to establish good neighborly relations. Here is how ‘Abd al-Razzaq Samarqandi writes in his work «Matla-i saadain wa majma-i bahrain»:
«His Majesty instructed to reward the ambassadors by bestowing them with royal headdresses and kushaks, and also determined appropriate gifts for Bulad Khan, Emir Idiku and Emir Ibsiyah. He determined to send Emir Hasanku possessing good manners and eloquence to Bulad-khan and to ask for a princess from the khan’s house and descendants of Chingyz-khan as a wife for the happy prince Mirza Muhammad Zhuki bahadyr and indicated as a candidate the daughter of Emir Idiku from the Mangyt family. Emir Hasanku set out on his way».
According to ‘Abd al-Razzak Samarkandi, during the years of Shahrukh and Ulugbek’s struggle with Shaykh Nur al-Din (1400-1410), Chyngyz-oglan ruled in the Uzbek ulus, overthrown in the very beginning of 1416. Jabarberdy, son of Toktomush khan [23].
In the spring of 1410-11 Abakan-tavaji arrived to Shahrukh. He handed gifts and a letter to Edigei, who expressed his readiness to recognize Shahrukh’s supreme authority over himself [24].
After Bulad-khan’s death in 1410-11 the throne of Golden Horde was seized by Timur-khan. Then between Edigei and Timur-khan the sharp struggle began. Here is what Mu’in ad-Din Natanzi wrote about it: «Idiku also by necessity put Timur-sultan on the throne of the kingdom because of the agreement that he had with his father… Then Idiku gave him his daughter, so that due to the kinship the access for the conversations of instigators was narrowed. Thus some time passed, and Timur-sultan quite liked the people, they inclined to him to destroy Idiku. Enmity and bitterness arose between them, so that they once or twice fought (with each other)… Idiku by necessity bid farewell to his state and fled to Khorezm» [25]. [25].
According to Abd al-Razzak Samarkandi, Edigei fled to Khorezm in 1411-12. Ujuk-bahadur and Gazan, sent by Timur-khan to pursue Edigei, caught up with him in the area of Sam. Edigei did not accept the battle and fled to Urgench, where he had to sit in a siege for 6 months. At this time, another coup d’état took place in the Golden Horde. Timur Khan was overthrown by Jalal ad-Din Sultan, son of Toktomush, and fled, as well as Edigei, towards Khorezm. On the way he was killed by his nuker. Ujuk-bahadur and Gazan on the instructions of Jalal ad-Din entered into negotiations with Edigei, and the latter agreed to the condition of peace set by them: to obey Jalal ad-Din unconditionally and send one of his sons to his palace. Gazan, having made peace with him, headed towards Dasht-i Kypchak. However, Jalal ad-Din soon refused to make peace with Edigei and sent against him a three-thousand-strong army under the command of Kujulai. Edigei came out of Urgench and defeated Kudzhulai’s detachment. Edigei got about a thousand prisoners and rich booty. The prisoners were put in chains and distributed among the population of Urgench, and under threat of death penalty ordered the townspeople to protect and maintain them, which caused great discontent among the population of Khorezm.
Meanwhile, Shahrukh followed the events in Khorezm and, seizing the moment, sent an army there in 1412-13 [26]. But only a year later, in 1413-1414. Shahmalik managed to induce the nobility of Khorezm to his side and expel Mubarak Shah and his supporters from there. From that time Khorezm was again included in the Timurid state, and Emir Shahmalik was appointed ruler.
In 1418-1419, Barak-oglan, son of Kuiruchuk-oglan, and Ulug Muhammad, a descendant of Toko-Timur, contested for power over the Uzbek ulus. Ultimately Ulug Muhammad won. And Barak fled to Samarkand and found shelter at the court of Ulugbek. The latter gave him armed assistance and sent him to the Uzbek ulus.
Ulugbek supported Barak, while Shahrukh established friendly relations with another juchid, Ulug Muhammad. Ulug Muhammad through his ambassadors sought to upset Barak’s alliance with Ulugbek, to neutralize the Timurid state in his struggle with other pretenders to the throne of the White Horde [27].
In the middle of September 1420 Barak’s ambassador Sufi-oglan arrived in Samarkand, who presented Ulugbek with rich gifts — beasts, gyrfalcons, horses and jewelry [28]. In 1423 Barak, skillfully using the never-ending struggle of feudal groups for power in the Golden Horde, with the help of Ulugbek seized power over the Uzbek ulus and established his authority.
Thus, Persian-language narrative sources are of exceptional importance for covering the ethnic history of the period under consideration, which is due not only to the high quality of Persian-language authors, most of whom were official historiographers of Mongol or Turkic reigning dynasties, but also due to the fact that they covered the deeds of their rulers «on the hot tracks», as Nizam al-Din Shami and Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi did, or performed (Rashid al-Din, Juwayni) a special task to reconstruct the history of Mongol conquest and rule.
The peculiarity of Persian sources is also the fact that they cover in great detail the most important events of foreign and internal political life of the eastern part of the Dzhuchi ulus, the Chagatai ulus and the territories adjacent to them.
Moreover, they provide both quite reliable and relatively systematic history of political and ethnic development of the period and region under consideration.