It is known that ancient China is the birthplace of inventions that had a significant push in the development of human civilization. Among these inventions, a special place is occupied by gunpowder, which was invented in the first millennium AD.
Initially, gunpowder was used by the Chinese in various fire effects, such as fireworks. But then, seeing the military potential in the use of gunpowder, they began to use it in various weapons. It is true that in the first firearms, gunpowder contained an insufficient amount of saltpeter, due to which it did not have much explosive destructive effect. Therefore, the first firearms had more of a largely incendiary effect on the enemy. For example, fire spades were weapons made of bamboo stuffed with gunpowder. The gunpowder was then set on fire, and the resulting jet of fire was directed at the enemy. At a later stage, the Chinese created something similar to gunpowder rifles and cannons, but it was not on the level of effective firearms that came to be used in the Middle Ages in the European theater of war.
It is widely believed that gunpowder entered Europe through the Middle East in the mid-13th century via the Arabs, who used gunpowder weapons like the Chinese. But it may have been due to the Mongols. After all, the worldwide Mongol expansion was taking place at the same time. Through their invasive campaigns, the Mongols created a world empire that began from the eastern borders of Asia and extended to Western Europe. The Mongols owed much of their success to the fact that they adopted many of the military technologies of the conquered peoples, particularly the Chinese. But due to the fact that in the Mongolian army the priority belonged to the cavalry, they favored the world’s best composite bows. And powder technologies borrowed from the Chinese were used most often during the siege of fortresses. And this attitude to the new military technology turned out in time for the Mongols disastrous consequences, which will be discussed in this article. But for now, let’s trace the further path of gunpowder distribution.
In Europe, the attitude to gunpowder was quite different: here it brought revolutionary changes in military affairs. Europeans immediately saw in gunpowder a huge potential in the creation of new weapons that could fundamentally change the military strategy.
The Chinese could not, like their other great inventions, keep secret the recipe for making gunpowder, which spread to many regions of the world — a mixture of charcoal, sulfur and saltpeter. And in each region the proportions of the components varied, but in each case it did not show a powerful fugacious (explosive) action. But in 1330 Franciscan monk Berthold Schwarz, having mixed three specified components in a special ratio, unexpectedly received a powerful explosion, which partially destroyed his cell. It became clear that the substance invented by Schwarz had enormous destructive power. But the end of the monk who had made such a revolutionary discovery was unenviable: German King Wenceslas IV ordered the inventor to be executed by putting him on a barrel of gunpowder, which he had created. Schwarz died, but his creation went on to become a reality.
The technology of gunpowder production began to improve: powder paste began to form grains, which increased the explosive effect. On the other hand, by changing the size of the powder grains it was possible to change the power of the gunpowder explosion, which made it possible to create firearms of different power. As a result, a new type of gunpowder was indispensable in the creation of a new type of throwing weapons — firearms, first cannons, and then guns (muskets) in the modern representation. So, during the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) the English had cannons, though bulky, heavy, inconvenient in use and with insignificant efficiency. But the most important thing is that the process began.
As a result, in the spring of 1453, the Ottoman Turks during the siege of the capital of the Byzantine Empire Constantinople used heavy-duty cannons. And only thanks to them the Ottomans were able, having destroyed the fortress walls, to seize the city.
The siege of Constantinople. 1453.
After many examples of successful use of firearms became massively used in the armies of European countries. But still there were conservative rulers who remained adherents of classical cold weapons, especially in the armies of eastern countries, which were based on cavalry.
A clear example of the rivalry between two approaches to military strategies — traditional and modern innovative with the use of firearms is the Battle of Chaldiran.
In 1514 on plain Chaldiran (northwest Iran) Persian army Ismail I and Ottoman Selim I have met. The Persian Shah was a typical representative of the traditional military, despising the latest military technology, so the basis of his army was cavalry. And about artillery he contemptuously declared: — «It is unworthy for a warrior of Allah to hide behind cannons». Moreover, he had at his disposal the famous djangewars — heavy cavalry that caused terror during the attack on the enemy. The Ottomans, in turn, closely followed the latest military achievements and tried to implement them in their army. And this attitude to their army was the key to their subsequent victories.
In the morning the two armies met in full readiness for battle: on the Ottoman side the Janissaries, the main force of the Ottoman army, were ready to attack, with 300 cannons lined up behind them, and they were opposed by the Persian heavy cavalry. The Janissaries were the first to attack, but the Persian cavalrymen, having overturned the attack of the Janissaries, rushed towards the Ottoman ranks with a huge lava. Victory seemed inevitable and already the Persian Shah, anticipating success, ordered the entire army to attack. But then the Ottoman artillery struck in unison, sweeping away all the heavy Persian cavalry with its barrage of fire. Most of the Persian horses, unaccustomed to the terrible thunder and fire of cannons, rushed in panic from the battlefield, throwing off their riders. And those cavalrymen who managed to cut into the Ottoman ranks were annihilated by the Ottoman infantry. Seeing the terrible picture of defeat, the remaining Persians fled the battlefield. Victory was for the Ottomans. This battle was a victory first of all of modern — firearms against cavalry — outdated steppe way of warfare.
Similar history has taken place a little earlier already in territory of Russia. Let’s consider it and answer a question — How Chinese, i.e. their invention, have helped to get rid of Mongol domination which has fundamentally changed a course of a history of Russian statehood.
In 1237 the huge Mongolian army of Khan Batyi invaded the territory of Russia. The attack of Mongols was so rapid that already in 1240 practically all large Russian cities have fallen under an onslaught of Mongols, including ancient Kiev. The Golden Horde period of Russian history has begun, when Russia has appeared under authority of the Mongolian Golden Horde. Russian principalities made attempts to throw off the yoke of dependence, but it did not succeed due to their disunity. Moreover, the Mongols successfully pursued the policy of «divide and conquer». Mongol khans, taking advantage of the fragmentation of Russia, pitted princes against each other, using as a prize the «khan’s label» for the principality.
But in 1380 there was an event that became a glorious page in the history of the Russian people. Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, who later received an honorary prefix to the name «Donskoy» and became a national hero for the Russian people, managed to rally other Russian princes around him and in the battle of Kulikovo Field defeated the Mongol army. And this victory was an important step towards the unification of Russia. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo led to further strengthening of the Moscow principality and the unification of Russian lands around him. In parallel, the dependence on the Golden Horde was weakening. As a result, by the second half of the XV century, the Moscow principality gained power that allowed it to oppose the Golden Horde Mongols.
In the context of the content of the article it should be noted that Kulikovo was the last large-scale victorious battle in which the Russian army used traditional cold weapons. In the next decisive confrontation the use of already firearms allowed the Russian army to finish it successfully.
Firearms in Russia appeared in the late XIV century. Thus, according to some sources, during the campaign to Volga Bulgaria by Moscow Prince Dmitry, the Russian army was shelled with firearms from the walls of the capital of this kingdom. The cannons were taken as trophies and later used against the Mongols when they besieged Moscow in 1382. Despite the fact that the Mongols captured Moscow, the experience of using firearms was viewed positively by Russian military commanders. As a result, already in 1389 a batch of cannons was purchased in Europe. Arming of the Russian army with firearms began. In the army, in addition to warriors armed with traditional cold weapons — spears, swords, bows, etc., there were warriors armed with pishchals — long-barreled cannons. They were also armed with «tyufyaki» — firearms for firing stone or metal shot at the enemy’s manpower.
In the second half of the 15th century, a strong centralized state was formed on the territory of Russia — the Moscow principality headed by Ivan III, who conquered a number of appanage principalities of Northeast Russia. At the same time, the Golden Horde was going through hard times. The disintegration into several independent state formations, between which there were continuous feuds, significantly weakened the Mongols. The throne of the Golden Horde kingdom and the title of Great Khan were in the hands of Akhmat, whose power extended over vast territories between the Volga and the Dnieper.
Taking advantage of the favorable situation, and most importantly, the increased power of the Russian state Ivan III in 1472 decided to put an end to the Mongol dependence, stopping the final payment of tribute to the Mongols. In response, Akhmat in 1480 began his campaign against Moscow in an attempt to bring Russia back into submission to the Horde.
As soon as reports of the approaching enemy reached Moscow, Ivan III began to gather an army to repel the enemy. A strategy was worked out, which allowed to give a worthy repulse to the Golden Horde later. Due to the fact that the basis of the Mongol army was cavalry, to limit its maneuverability it was decided to use the Oka River with its large tributary Ugra, as an effective natural barrier. In addition, it was decided to use a new kind of troops in the Russian army — artillery. In the course of forthcoming battle if necessary it was supposed a secret raid of Russian detachments in rear on territory of Horde for carrying out a diversionary blow. Thus special attention was paid to the tributary of the Oka river Ugra, because if the Oka was a difficult obstacle for a large mass of cavalry, the smaller Ugra had fords available for overcoming the river. Therefore, the Russian regiments were located in the most dangerous areas along the Ugra River. Here they also built fortifications, where there were foot soldiers and artillery servants with cannons. Mounted detachments patrolled along the river bank to prevent enemy scouts from penetrating in order to find convenient crossings and find out the disposition of Russian troops. The main cavalry forces were located in reserve. As a result, a positional defense was created with fortifications in dangerous areas, armed with firearms.
As Ivan III foresaw, as soon as the first detachments of the Golden Horde came to the bank of the Oka River, they saw before them an insurmountable river and Russian detachments on the opposite bank. And this forced Akhmat to turn his army to the shallower Ugra. There, near Kaluga, he decided to force the Ugra. At the beginning of October 1480 Horde armies came to the crossings on Ugra.
On October 8, 1480 the Horde cavalry rushed into the water, trying to quickly overcome the not wide, but deep enough surface of the river Ugra. The cavalry used the traditional way of crossing: they threw themselves together with horses into the water, holding on to their necks, and slowly swam forward, using air-inflated furs. As soon as the main enemy mass reached the middle of the river they were hit by a barrage of Russian arrows, nukes and buckshot from cannons and pishchals.
Battle on the banks of the Ugra. 1480
Horde and their horses massively drowned in waters of the river. Only small groups of cavalry reached the opposite bank, but here they immediately found their death at the hands of Russian infantry. Having not succeeded at one crossing, Akhmat drove his cavalry to other parts of the river. In the context of the content of the article it should be noted that Kulikovo was the last large-scale victorious battle in which the Russian army used traditional cold weapons. In the next decisive confrontation the use of already firearms allowed the Russian army to finish it successfully. Firearms in Russia appeared in the late XIV century.
Thus, according to some sources, during the campaign to Volga Bulgaria by Moscow Prince Dmitry, the Russian army was shelled with firearms from the walls of the capital of this kingdom. The cannons were taken as trophies and later used against the Mongols when they besieged Moscow in 1382. Despite the fact that the Mongols captured Moscow, the experience of using firearms was viewed positively by Russian military commanders.
As a result, already in 1389 a batch of cannons was purchased in Europe. Arming of the Russian army with firearms began. In the army, in addition to warriors armed with traditional cold weapons — spears, swords, bows, etc., there were warriors armed with pishchals — long-barreled cannons.
They were also armed with «tyufyaki» — firearms for firing stone or metal shot at the enemy’s manpower. In the second half of the XV century on the territory of Russia formed a strong centralized state — the Moscow principality headed by Ivan III, who conquered a number of appanage principalities of Northeast Russia. At the same time, the Golden Horde was going through hard times. The disintegration into several independent state formations, between which pr