Under Murad I, the formation of the Ottoman beylik as a state was completed. From the tribal formation of Kaya Beylik turned into a powerful state with institutions of power and foreign policy goal — the capture of the Balkan Peninsula and the unification of Turkic tribes of Anatolia.
State session (julus) under Murad I
Origin of Murad I
The exact name of Sultan Murad I is not known. And the name Murat may not be his real name, as he was called so only in Greek and Latin sources (Amurat and Moratibey).
His entourage called him Gazi Hunkar — that is devoted to God.
It is precisely known that Murad’s father was the second ruler of the Ottoman beylik Orhan. But the mother of Murad most likely was not the official spouse, and concubine Nilufer-khatun.
He was born approximately in 1326. When he came of age, Orhan allocated him as an inheritance Bursa — the administrative center of the Ottoman beylik.
Murad’s elder half-brother Suleyman Pasha was to become the Ottoman ruler. He was a brave and successful warrior who captured fortresses on the Galipoli peninsula, which became a springboard for further conquests in Europe.
But Suleyman Pasha died after falling from his horse while falconry. And Murad became the commander of the army in Europe.
Murad was lucky that his mentor from childhood was a talented military commander Lala Shahin. He won for his ward Adrianople, which in 1362 became the new capital of the Ottoman beylik instead of the tsarevitch Bursa.
Lala Şahin Pasha (1330 — after 1388) was an Ottoman military leader and the first beylerbay of Rumelia.
On the throne
In the spring of 1362, when Murad was in Europe, his father Orhan dies. Murad was immediately informed of this by the cadi of Bursa, Kara khalil Pasha. He also reported that his brothers Khalil and Ibrahim were claiming the throne, and detachments of other Anatolian beys appeared on the borders.
Kara Khalil Pasha not only informed Murad of the situation, but also did him the great favor of holding Bursa for him. Murad arrived in Bursa where everything was ready for his ascension to the throne. Murad killed his brothers and became bey.
After that he occupied himself with the Anatolian beys, whom he defeated in several skirmishes and they were forced to return Ankara, which they had captured taking advantage of the turmoil in the Ottomans.
Balkan conquests
Having finished with internal affairs Murad was engaged in European affairs. His troops captured Edirne, an important stronghold that opened the way to Bulgaria. Then Ishtebol in Bulgaria was taken, and in 1371 coalition forces of Serbs, Bosnians and Greeks were defeated by Lala Shahin on the Marice River. After that, many minor Serbian rulers became vassals of the Ottomans.
But the Turks also suffered losses — Count Amadeus VI of Savoy seized the Gallipoli peninsula, which hampered communications between Asian and European possessions.
The growth of the territory of the Ottoman state under Murad
Mutiny of Savji Bey
In 1373-1385, one of the strangest political affairs in the history of the Ottoman Empire took place — the mutiny of Murad’s son Savji Bey.
Not much is known about the beginning of the rebellion (if there was one at all), but in 1376 two princes — Savji-bey and the heir to the Byzantine throne Andronicus captured Constantinople. Emperor John V was removed from power.
He was returned to the throne by none other than Murad I. He defeated both princes and severely punished his son, who was blinded. Pope Andronicus was more gentle to his son and imprisoned him. This story most likely ended in 1385 when Savji-bey was blinded and died. And before that about nine years these princes owned Constantinople and nobody it did not confuse. In any case about this period there is no data.
On version of modern researchers Savji-bey was an obstacle for favorite son Murad Bayazid. This was the reason for his blinding, not political games with the Byzantine throne, as a result of which Byzantium on the contrary became a vassal of the Ottomans (and returned Gallipoli to the Ottomans). Most likely there was no mutiny as such, but the capture of Constantinople with the help of the Byzantine heir. And after that Savji-bey simply removed as an unnecessary pawn.
An attempt to unite Turkic tribes in Anatolia
In 1381 Murad married his son Bayezid to the daughter of Suleyman-bey Hermiyanoglu. In this way the old quarrels with the Hermiyans (the largest beylik in terms of territory) were ended and Bayezid received a part of their possessions as a dowry.
Murad’s daughter Nefise was married to Alaeddin-bey Karamanoglu. Beylik Karamanoglu (with the center in Konya) was the most powerful Turkic possession and fully national — the state language in it was declared Turkic.
But despite the dynastic marriage Alaeddin pursued an aggressive policy against the Ottomans and one after another captured the territories of the border beyliks.
In 1386, organized Ottoman troops defeated Karamanoglu’s tribal cavalry at the Battle of Ankara. Alaeddin recognized the superiority of the Ottomans over himself and gave them the passes to the beylik in the Taurus Mountains. This allowed the Ottomans to take control of the Karamanoglu beylik and gain control of the ancient caravan routes.
In the Battle of Ankara, the heavy panzer cavalry of the Serbs performed well. But after the defeat of Karamanoglu they began to rob the local population, which caused discontent of the Turks. Conceding to his kinsmen Murad was forced to execute the Serbian soldiers caught in the robbery, which caused a legitimate indignation among them — because at that time they fought for the possibility of robbery after the victory. Thus among some of the Serbian satellites began to sprout sprouts of hatred towards the Ottomans.
A Trapezund Empire * B Byzantine Empire (until 1261 Nicaea Empire) * C Latin Empire * D Cilician Armenia * E Seljuk State * 1 Chobanogullar * 2 Karamanogullar * 3 Inanchogullar (Ladik) * 4 Sahib Ataogullars * 5 Pervaneogullars * 6 Mentesheogullars * 7 Eshrefogullars * 8 Jandarogullars * 9 Karasiogullars * 10 Osmanogullars * 11 Hermiyanogullars.
Death on the Kosovo field
While Murad was dealing with internal affairs, the Ottomans suffered defeats in Europe at the hands of Serbs and Bosnians — at Pločnik and Belić in 1388.
Then, in 1389 Murad led the liberated troops to the Balkans and in the Battle of Kosovo defeated the coalition of Serbian and Bosnian rulers.
There he also died — either by the hand of some Christian who pretended to be dead, or by the hand of Milos Obilic, an alleged Serbian defector who sneaked into his tent (the identity of this man is not confirmed by historians).
Murad’s assassination. Engraving from the German (1694) edition of «History» by Paul Ricoeur
Murad’s Eurocentrism
Initially Murad I did not intend to conquer Anatolia. Even his father Orhan pursued a policy of penetrating the Ottomans into Europe. With what it was connected now it is not clear. But Murad continued his father’s policy and considered his European possessions as the main ones.
Therefore, he supported a member of the religious Sufi sect, Ahi Kara Khalil Pasha, whom he appointed Grand Vizier (Prime Minister).
There is no stranger sect than the Sufis, who are more mystics and scholars than faithful Muslims. So was Halil Pasha, who created the state model of the Ottoman Empire that lasted until its end in the 20th century.
Halil Pasha introduced the devshirme system, according to which boys (from 8 to 16 years old) who were brought up in the court of the Sultan were taken from Christian families.
These boys were not slaves, but became faithful servants of the sultan and after training served at the palace, in the religious sphere and in the army. Gradually they displaced all Turkic tribal aristocracy and became the basis of the Ottoman Empire.
The Janissary Corps of Christian boys was also created, which began to fulfill the functions of regular infantry and gendarmerie in the Ottoman Empire.
Thus, the Christians, who adopted Islam in adolescence (but remembered who their fathers were) became the head of the state. And the Turks, though privileged, became a subordinate population with no prospects for public service.
It is difficult to say what guided Murad I and Halil Pasha. But that it was not the interests of the Turks is certain. This conflict is still observed in Turkey, and for example Anatolian Turks are sometimes still contemptuously called Kara-Turks (simple Turks).
Sultan title of Murad I
In the old inscriptions on the buildings of the beginning of Murad’s reign he is still called Bey. But since 1383 he already has the title of Sultan. His full title is al-malik al-mu-azzam al-hakan al-mukarram al-sultan ibn al-sultan. In the inscription mixed Turkic and Arabic names and may forgive more literate than me Arabists my translation of his title — Great Ruler Honorable Kagan Sultan Sultanov.
Subsequently this title became the official title for all Ottoman sultans.
Thus, Murad I continued the work of his father completely transformed the Ottoman Beylik into an almost European state with a bureaucratic apparatus and a professional army of Janissaries. But the tribal Turkic aristocracy was completely pushed away from the helm of power. This is how this amazing state formation — the Ottoman Empire — came into being.