Periodically, certain centers of power emerge in the world. Today it is Russia, the United States and China. “Yesterday” — the Soviet Union, the United States, Great Britain and Germany. “The day before yesterday” — the Russian Empire, Great Britain, France and Germany (you get the logic). But once upon a time, long ago, even before the birth of the great “Shaker of the Universe” — the almighty Genghis Khan, it was the Mongolian steppes that began to turn into a special center of power. Yes, such a power that they — once disunited and fierce “savages of the north”, having gathered under their command and other steppe peoples, albeit briefly, but created the largest empire in human history — the Mongolian Empire.
Today we will talk about Mongolia before Genghis Khan. About how it looked like, what customs reigned on this harsh land, what were the prerequisites for future unprecedented power, when from Eastern Europe to India ruled one khan (ulus were ruled by younger khans, so do not “confuse the truth”).
The narrative will need to begin with the Iron Age. Modern archaeologists have found on the territory of modern Mongolia a large burial complex of V-III century BC, located in Ubsunur aimag near Ulangom. This suggests that even in time immemorial there was already life in the Steppe. What kind of life? The question is very debatable.
The spread of tile grave culture. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan.
For example, up to the 20th century, many historians claimed that it was from these vast grassy fields that the Scythians broke out towards Europe, reshaping the look of the then existing world to their liking. But as further research showed, the lands of the Scythians still only reached the western tomb of modern Mongolia. And most of the formidable horsemen had blond hair (what some mummies found during excavations say), so still it is impossible to identify the ancient Scythians and forefathers of the Mongols.
But Huns (Hunnu) can be identified. In the Chinese chronicles they passed under a single name — “Beidi”. Exactly such epithet in translation into Russian would mean something similar to the word combination “northern barbarian”. Yes, the Hunnu people did not consist of only the ancestors of the Mongols. For example, it is now believed that there were Manchus and representatives of other steppe clans. But the ancient Chinese, to all appearances, had no time to understand all the intricacies of the relationships of the “northern savages”. Therefore, “beidi” and that’s it!
And it was necessary to understand, because soon it was the “beidi” who ruled all modern China for a long time!
The Hunnu Empire at the height of its power. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan.
Isstari, in Mongolia, nations derived their name from the name of the house that ruled a particular community of people. And since ancient times the great houses have been feuding with each other, from time to time making alliances and bringing down particularly hapless opponents from the world. The Chinese emperors these alliances were like a bone in the throat — as soon as under one ruler gathered at least a few houses, as immediately followed a devastating raid on the “noble lands”.
In 480 B.C. the once united China was divided into 7 manors. At that time, there was already a firm practice of paying off the Mongols. Or even to invite “northern barbarians” to take part in internal disputes between the counties. But still, with time, reason and civilization began to take the upper hand, and “wild” steppe peoples were pushed farther and farther to the north.
About 3 centuries B.C., the three border counties began to separate from the Great Steppe by strong walls. And when China was united under the rule of the greatest emperor of this country — Qin Shihuangdi, the scattered defenses were united into one — the Great Wall of China.
Construction of the Great Wall of China. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
The presence of the Great Wall of China is the best reflection of how strong and formidable opponents the northern nomads were. But the northerners did not yet know their main strength and were still busy with internecine wars. Thus, three khanates appeared on the territory of Mongolia: Dunhu in Eastern Mongolia, the largest khanate — Hunnu in Middle Mongolia and there — Yuezhi.
The unification could not take place in any other way but by force. And Mode-shanyu, the mighty ruler of Hunnu, during the years of his life from 209 to 174 years not only scattered the Aryans-Yuechzhi, but also conquered Dunhu, for the first time becoming the sole ruler of all Central Asia. Thus appeared the empire of Hunnu which has stretched from the Great Wall to present limits of Russia and from Kazakh steppes to limits of Manchuria, having put the beginning of the future might of Mongols (the way has been specified).
In 202 B.C. devastating raids on the lands of China began, which led to the recognition of the Shanyu court as equal in status to the Chinese court. The first dynastic marriages were arranged through the voluntary and forced sending of Chinese princesses to the lands of the Northmen.
Chinese princesses on the steppe. “When the Steppe was stronger than the world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan.
Together with the tsarevnas to the Great Steppe went and the learned Chinese. And it was they who gave the previously illiterate barbarians the basics of writing, taxation and something similar to a code of laws. But by 71 B.C., internal tensions in the royal house of Hunnu had greatly increased, and internecine struggles for power had weakened the state considerably. A brief burst of greatness occurred under Huhanye-shanyu, from 57 to 31 BCE. But then, for two centuries, the Hunnu statehood degenerated until the southern khanates came under the rule of Chinese emperors, and the northern khanates perished in the ceaseless carnage of internecine warfare.
On a place of the lost state the proto-Mongolian tribes among which the strongest union Xianbi has allocated have appeared. It is this group of tribes, in the I century BC, was able to reach an agreement with China on joint hostilities against the state of Northern Hunnu.
The Proto-Mongolian tribes inflicted the first defeat on the former rulers in 87 AD. And already to the beginning of II century the association of Syanbi has gained such force that they have already started to make attacks on China. However, for a long time — fruitless and “painful” for themselves.
Map of the Xianbi Empire. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
In spite of everything, from 93 AD, the Xianbi state emerged in the Great Steppe, which existed until 234 AD. And it was this state that gave birth to the first great proto-Mongol warlord — Tanshihuai, who took the title of elder of the Xianbi at the age of 14.
At the age of 16 Tanshihuai defeated the Dinlin tribes and crushed the remnants of the Huns, forcing them out of the Transbaikal steppe. In 166 this ruler reflects the treacherous attack of the Chinese, who came to his soul. But death can not deceive — and in 181 AD passed away the first truly great emperor of the nascent Mongolian tribe.
The Xianbian power was replaced by the Toba-Wei power, which was able to last until the middle of the III century, until everything and everyone was swallowed up by the Zhuzhan Khaganate.
The Zhuzhan Khaganate. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
The Zhuzhan Kaganate, in its essence — a state of Mongolian-speaking nomadic peoples, which ruled over the lands of Central Asia in the period from 330 to 555. And, as the court historian Northern Wei reported — it was the Xianbi who occupied the dominant position in this state.
According to the traveler and professor of philology — Matthias Kastren, in the I-th millennium AD began an important process of migration of peoples across the Great Steppe. Thus, the Samoyed tribes were displaced by the coming Turks from the northern limits of the Sayan Plateau, and also “conceived” such peoples as Selkups, Nganasans, Enets and Nenets. In turn, the aliens from the territory of Western Siberia, in view of their large numbers, began the process of assimilation of other tribes and peoples. Thus, some Samoyeds, Ugrians, Iranian-speaking Scythians and Mongols became an integral part of the Turkic genome.
In 552 the strengthened Turks were able to break the army of the Zhuzhan Khaganate, and in 555 one more proto-Mongolian state ceased to exist. A part of Zhuzhan remained on the territory of Mongolia. Another part went to the east.
The Turkic period. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
The Turkic period lasted in the Great Steppe from 555 to 848. It was they who took control of the northwestern lands. But the southern and southeastern steppes were still ruled by the Mongol-speaking Kidans and Kumosi.
China actively interfered in local politics, correctly supplying titles and regalia to representatives of different houses. But during the Tang dynasty, not without its help, the house of the ancient Uighurs or, in other words, the “Huikhe tribe” became stronger.
In 603 there is a disintegration of powerful Turkic Khaganate on East and West part. The Eastern Kaganate in the VII-VIII century occupied large areas near the mouth of the Onon River, in the valley of the Argun River and in the upper reaches of the Onon, giving birth to its own Burkhotui culture. Western Turks rushed in the corresponding direction.
Kyrgyzstan Kaganate map. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
Against this background, the Uighurs finally rose to prominence, founding their own kaganate. But it did not last long, as other formidable warriors — the Yenisei Kyrgyz, in the 840s, inflicted on the Uigur Kaganate a series of painful defeats, forcing the leading tribe to retreat to the Xinjiang region. Thus, in the crucible of incessant wars a new state — the Kyrgyz Kaganate — was forged.
Having defeated all their opponents the Yenisei Kyrgyz preferred not to spread throughout the entire tray of their lands, but concentrated in the Minusinsk Basin. In vain — without control, the outskirts of the empire began to rapidly “boil”, and Central Asia plunged more and more rapidly into anarchy and chaos. Gradually, the Turkic domination went away, making room for the next “surge of power”.
Forged in the crucible of constant wars, survived hundreds of battles and invasions, the Tatar-Mongols, the Kidans and the still living Xianbi, who founded their own states — Togon and Northern Zhou, began to enter the arena. But all this was only a forerunner of occurrence Kidan Khaganate which basis became so-called Kidan-Mongols which have begun to magnify and to gain force in the North-Eastern part of China.
The Kidan Kaganate. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
It took the Kidan Mongols almost 4 centuries to organize their state in 907. It turned out thanks to the efforts of the ruler Ambagai, who united under his hand significant forces and founded the Kidan Kaganate. In 916 the newly-made Khaganate makes some campaigns, capturing the extensive territory. Including conquers all Northern China that has made Kidan Khaganate the most powerful power of the time. Then, for the first time in history, the prefix “heavenly” was added to the title of Kagan, which directly referred to his divine origin.
By 924 the Kidans finally ousted the Turks from the Mongolian plateau, and Ambagai called his state in his own way — Liao. Or, in Russian translation, the Great Iron State. Additionally, under this really wise and far-sighted ruler, their own Kidan writing was created, which allowed them to “break away” from Chinese norms and standards of conducting state affairs.
In 925, the Kidans begin to act on purely Mongolian tactics. And before attacking the state of Bohai, they gather under their command a huge number of other steppe peoples, which are used as cannon fodder in major battles. This and allowed to literally flood Bohai and make in its place its vassal state Dundan with the son of Ambagai at the head.
General state of affairs in the world. No Russian-language map could be found. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
Not everything was smooth in Liao’s history. And the once-subjugated Jurchens, in 1115, rebelled with the founding of their own Jin dynasty. The confrontation lasted more than 10 years. During this time, the Jin found support in the face of the Song Empire. But the troops of allies weakly helped the Jurchens. In turn, the commander of Liao — Yelui Dashi, decided to remove from the theater of military operations of the new enemy, taking an offensive in the territory of the new enemy.
In 1123 on the side of the Kidans in the general “mess” interfere Tangut — Western Xia. With varying success — they defeated several small armies of Jin, but suffered a crushing defeat from the Jurchens. More and more it became clear that the war was acquiring the character of an all-Asian war. And a series of diplomatic actions and territorial concessions left the Kidans alone with a large number of opponents.
It did not work long to resist — already in 1125 the center of the Kidan Empire was taken by the Jin army. But the agreements reached did not lead to anything (no one was going to honor them in the long term) and the Song Empire clashed in a new struggle with the Jurchen armies.
Emperor of the Jin Dynasty. “When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan.
The armies of the Song Empire were truly vast. But they consisted mostly of infantry, so they could not put at least something to the rapid actions of the Zhurchen cavalry. That is why the steppe cavalry took the large city of Kafeng, thus joining the north of China. During this period, many Mongols became vassals of the Churchens. But there were also dissenters — hundreds of thousands of Kidans retreated westward, founding the Karakitai Khanate in Central Asia.
Can you imagine how serious warriors grew up in a land of incessant warfare? And the Mongols, who settled in Transbaikalia and the steppes of modern Mongolia after the decline of the Zhuzhan Kaganate, survived all the hardships, climbed to the top of glory, power and honor more than once, and also fell down more than once.
Let and with interruptions, but the rise of Mongolian tribes continued all I millennium AD. And even the Turkic rule could not influence this process in any way.
“When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan.
By the beginning of the 10th century, the Mongols were everywhere — from the Great Wall of China in the south to Lake Baikal in the north, from the headwaters of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the west to Khingan in the east.
Tang chronicles were the first to call this stubborn people “Shiwei Mongu”. But in the X century the prefix “Shiwei” fell off, after which there remained very, very familiar — “Mongu”, “Mengu” and “Monguli”.
Yes, many homegrown historians are right. And once upon a time, the common name Mongol belonged to only one of the houses. But the influence of that house grew, and the name spread to other tribes.
According to local legends, every Mongol descended from a motley doe and a gray wolf, and the mythological founder of the entire Mongol tribe, Budanchar, was conceived from the connection of a celestial spirit with the widow Alan-goa.
“When the Steppe was stronger than the whole world»: Mongolia before Genghis Khan
“The “Hidden Tale” of the Mongols says that after their defeat by the Turks, they withdrew to an area called Ergune-kun (Argun River) and there recovered from their losses for a long time. But after the fall of the Zhuzhan Khaganate, in the VIII century they returned to Burkhan-Khaldun. And it was here, at the headwaters of the Onon, that Genghis Khan’s forefathers — Goa-Maral and Borte-Chino — founded their nomads. And very soon the “Shaker of the Universe”, who had been in the skin of a slave and an exile, having united Mongolian tribes, would begin to reshape the whole face of the then known world….