The birth of a new power on the wreckage of old empires
In 1265, with the death of Hulagu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, a new phase in the history of the Middle East began. His successors, the Ilkhans of Persia, enthusiastically embraced Islam and the achievements of civilization. The historian Rashid al-Din aptly remarked, «The Mongols, who had hitherto only destroyed, now began to build.» However, this transition to sedentarization had its price — the abandonment of rigid Mongol traditions led to consequences that Genghis Khan himself warned against.
By 1291, disagreements about succession to the throne among the Ilkhans of Persia had plunged their peripheral possessions into chaos. Wars with Mamluk Egypt broke out on the borders, and rebellions broke out in Asia Minor. The weakening of the Seljuk sultanate, undermined by Mongol raids, created fertile ground for ambitious petty rulers who sought independence.
Among these fortune seekers in northwestern Anatolia were former refugees from Central Asia known as Ottomans. Initially, they owned only a small piece of land with pastures as vassals of the Seljuks. However, the political situation in Anatolia was changing rapidly, and a new form of militant Islam emerged amidst the collapse of the Seljuk state.
This new force was represented by independent units known as ghazis, «holy warriors» who fought to spread the faith and lived off the spoils of war. In fact, the Ghaziyya chiefs were «field commanders» who attracted supporters through military prowess and successful campaigns. Having no tribal or territorial basis, the Ghazis adhered to any prominent leader who promised victory. Such leaders gradually became rulers of the conquered lands. The early Ottomans were typical ghazias, and it was this model that formed the basis of their future expansion.
The original position of the Ottomans is highlighted in red
Here it is necessarily necessary to make a reservation that we apply the term «Ottomans» conditionally. The name «Ottomans» (Osmanlı) appeared later, when the tribe began to gain strength under the leadership of Osman I. It comes from his name and literally means «sons of Osman» or «people of Osman». We do not know what this Turkic tribe was called before Osman’s rule. It was insignificant and did not stand out among the other Turkic tribes of Anatolia. They were part of a larger group of Oghuz Turks who migrated to Anatolia from Central Asia.
Strategy for success: from border beylik to regional power
The first expansion of the Ottoman Emirate came at the expense of its Turkish neighbors in Anatolia. The key moment came in 1291, when a dispute over the succession to the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia erupted. The Anatolian Turkmens rebelled, and Emir Yavlak Arslan fell at the hands of the rebels. His son Ali avenged his father, but then renounced his allegiance to the Seljuks and their Mongol suzerains. Ali began attacking Byzantine lands, but after several skirmishes established peaceful relations with the Christian state.
His southern neighbor, an Ottoman leader named Osman, did not share his peace-loving sentiments. When Ali made peace with the Byzantines, Osman took charge of the raids. Other Ghazis, attracted by his successes, flocked under his banner, and by 1301 Osman was already knocking on the gates of Nicea (Iznik). The Ottoman conquests were gaining momentum.
By this time, Osman already controlled the territory from Dorilei (Eskisehir) to Bursa. Soon the Byzantine emperor sent an army against him, but Osman ambushed and defeated it at Bafei (Koyunhisar), forcing the local population to flee to Nicomedia (Izmit) while other Ottoman units approached Bursa. Eventually, he managed to capture Melangia (Yenisehir), which cut the communication between Bursa and Nicea.
Victories in the vicinity of Nicea glorified Osman, and thousands of Turkic clans rushed under his patronage. As a result, the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II became so alarmed by the Ottoman threat that he began to seek allies. He concluded a treaty with the Persian Ilkhan Oljeitu, offering him the hand of his sister. As a consequence of this agreement, Mongol armies invaded the Ottoman region of Eskisehir, where they were defeated by Osman’s son Orkhan. The Ottomans celebrated the triumph.
The old Seljuk state ceased to exist in 1302, and the Ilkhanate was plunged into turmoil, so nothing could stop the Ottomans from advancing further into the lands of the Byzantine Empire. Wars and raids did not stop, and soon after the death of Osman in 1326 Orhan captured Bursa, which became the first Ottoman capital. It is from this event that historians usually count the foundation of the Ottoman Empire and the beginning of the long process of Turkish conquests.
Breakthrough to Europe: from Gallipoli to Adrianople
By 1330, Emperor Andronicus III was forced to recognize the initial Ottoman conquests. But the expansion did not stop there, and in 1331 the emperor lost Nicea (Iznik). Then in 1337 Nicomedia (Izmit) fell, and by annexing the Karasi beylik in 1345, the Ottomans found themselves face to face with Europe for the first time. Orhan appointed his son Suleiman bey of Karasi, from where he intended to extend his conquests to the Balkans. Now the entire southern coast of the Sea of Marmara and the Asian shore of the Dardanelles were in the hands of the Ottomans.
The next steps of the Ottomans were greatly facilitated by the weakness of the Byzantine Empire. In 1342 a civil war broke out between the supporters of the minor emperor John V Paleologos (1341-1371) and his rival regent John (later John VI) Cantacuzin. In the first years of the struggle, John Cantacuzin used the troops of Umur-bey, one of the Ghazi chiefs. But when Umur-bey’s base in Izmir was sacked in 1344, he could no longer send troops to John Cantacuzin. Umur-bey recommended his ally Orkhan as an alternative, and when the rebellious emperor accepted the offer, the Ottomans found themselves at the center of Byzantine politics.
Orkhan seized the opportunity to form a strong alliance with John Cantacuzin and even married his daughter in 1346. In return, he sent the rebel six thousand of his soldiers, and this was enough to win the civil war — soon afterward, the regent Cantacuzin became Emperor John VI. He held the throne for eight years, supported by his loyal Ottoman allies, who spent most of the time repelling attacks from Serbia. When his ally Umur Bey died in 1348, Orhan became the undisputed leader of the Muslim forces on this most important edge of the Byzantine Empire. By the following year, 20,000 Ottoman warriors were actively engaged in the Byzantine wars, learning the roads and paths they would one day travel not as allies but as conquerors.
In 1352, a new battle for the Byzantine throne began when John V Palaeologos attempted to regain what he had lost. John Cantacuzin once again called upon Orkhan for help. The command of the army was entrusted to his son Suleiman, who led the army to Adrianople (Edirne) in Thrace. On his way there he captured Cimpe (Cimenlik) on the Isthmus of Gallipoli (Gelibola), where he established a Turkish military post. This greatly alarmed his ally John VI Kantakuzin, because it is one thing when the Ottomans set up temporary camps on his territory, and quite another when they have their own fortresses, from which they do not intend to leave. Negotiations for the return of Cimpe began — the Byzantines promised the Ottomans rich payoffs, and when the parties seemed to have reached an agreement, nature itself intervened.
In 1354, a strong earthquake destroyed the walls of several nearby towns. Ottoman troops seized the moment and captured these places as their terrified inhabitants fled for safety. What nature had given them, they were determined to hold on to. The necessity for a bargain with the Byzantines fell away of itself.
Gallipoli (Gelibolu) thus became the Ottomans’ bridgehead in Europe, and soon their power spread to the surrounding lands. Mosques, Islamic schools and courts began to appear. Orhan also looked for allies who could strengthen his position, and found them in the person of the Genoese. In Constantinople, however, John VI Kantakuzin was accused by local oppositionists that for many years he had used the help of the Ottomans for his personal needs and allowed the Turks to take root in Christian possessions. Under pressure from his opponents, the emperor was forced to abdicate.
Balkan expansion: from Adrianople to Kosovo
Suleiman, who led the Turks to Europe, died in 1357 after falling from his horse, and his father Orhan died in 1359. He outlived all but one of his sons, who became Sultan Murad I and ruled until his death at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Murad I successfully continued his brother’s conquests and, after consolidating his position in Asia Minor, won an important victory by capturing Adrianople in 1361. This city, renamed Edirne, later became the new Ottoman capital. The newly conquered lands were settled by immigrants from Anatolia.
Murad I proved to be not only an excellent warrior, but also a cunning strategist. He quickly figured out how to bypass Constantinople by moving his troops eastward to the Black Sea. Byzantine Emperor John V Palaeologos could only watch helplessly from the city walls as the Turkish ring tightened around his capital. Cornered, he made a humiliating deal with Murad I. The treaty seemed to guarantee the emperor’s safety, but in essence turned him into a puppet of the Ottomans.
While Byzantium was bowing its head, the neighboring Balkan countries were already sharpening their swords. The Turks did not wait for the weather and in 1363 moved from Edirne up the Maritsa River. Their goal was Philippopolis (now Plovdiv) with its rich rice fields. Although the city was far from the main dominions, it became an important outpost from which the Ottomans could already look towards Serbia.
Meanwhile, Serbia was doing its own thing. In 1331, Stefan Dusan ascended the throne and in 20 years he built up a real empire. He, like the Ottomans, did not miss the chance to fish in the troubled waters of Byzantine feuds. As a result, most of Albania, parts of Thrace and Macedonia were under his hand. In 1346 Dusan proclaimed himself «Emperor of Serbs and Greeks» and even swung at Constantinople, calling in the share of the Venetians. Rumors that he wanted to reconcile the Catholics with the Orthodox secured him the support of the Pope. But in 1355, when Dushan was about to embark on his grand crusade, the heavenly office sent him a summons and he died suddenly.
After Dushan’s departure, his empire began to crumble like a house of cards. But even when the Ottomans captured Philippopolis in 1363, the glory of the Serbs still rattled in the Balkans. So much so that even the princes who were beaten by the Ottomans decided to seek help from the Serbs. An impressive coalition was assembled: Serbs, Bosnians, Wallachians and Hungarians, led by King Louis the Great himself. All this army marched on the Turks at Edirne.
But here worked the old as the world truth: dizzy not only from defeats, but also from victories. Crusaders, intoxicated by their rapid march, lost vigilance. Not reaching Edirne a couple of days away, they set up camp on the banks of the Maritsa and arranged a real feast. The local Ottoman commander did not miss the moment. Under the cover of night he threw his light cavalry into the attack. Caught by surprise, the Christians rushed in panic across the overflowing Maritsa. Thousands found their deaths in its waters.
In 1365, Sultan Murad I made a move — moved the capital from Bursa to Edirne. This move spoke volumes. To place the heart of the empire at the very edge of its possessions, under the noses of its enemies — it is necessary to have nerves of steel and far-reaching plans. Besides, Edirne proved to be an ideal place to breed horses. Soon imperial stables and stud farms were located here, supplying the army with sharp horses. Even when Constantinople fell, the sultans were in no hurry to leave their favorite residence.
From Edirne Murad I could look over his possessions all the way to the Black Sea — the lands that now surrounded the shrinking Byzantium. The modest bridgehead at Gelibolu had become a powerful fist thrust over Europe. The Ottoman war machine was ready for new victories. A golden era of conquest was beginning.