Culture is a historical phenomenon, developing in the process of evolution of human society. Material and spiritual culture are interrelated and interdependent. There is no clear boundary between them, as the process of their development goes in parallel and has many points of contact. The production of material goods and values is the basis and source for the development of spiritual culture. Spiritual culture is aimed at mastering the extra-material heritage of human history, development of the sphere of individual consciousness (science, art, morality, enlightenment, etc.).
Spiritual culture of nomadic tribes has its own peculiarities and specifics of development.
The peculiarity of the nomadic world is its proximity to the natural environment. Nomadic pastoralists spent their lives on the bosom of boundless steppes, picturesque foothills and absorbed their mighty power and beauty with their mother’s milk. Having a lot of free time, they developed a tendency to philosophical and contemplative perception of reality, creative thinking, and poetic and romantic way of expressing emotions and thoughts.
By its signs and peculiarities of development nomadic culture is syncretic, i.e. it is characterized by fusion, non-dissociation, when separate kinds of art (for example, singing and music, dance) existed and developed in unity with each other.
The tribes that lived on the territory of Kazakhstan in ancient times (Sakas, Sarmatians, Usuns, Kangyu, Huns, etc.), then medieval Turkic associations were part of the pan-Eurasian cultural and ethnic civilization. As a result of constant intra-regional migrations and territorial expansion, nomads familiarized themselves with sedentary agricultural and urban culture, absorbing its best examples and achievements. In turn, the sedentary population had an opportunity to learn the life of nomadic tribes, their everyday life and economy, crafts, etc. Being in constant movement, nomadic pastoralists played the role of mediators in the convergence and interpenetration of different cultures.
Thus, the convergence, interaction and mutual enrichment of nomadic and sedentary cultural and economic civilizations was the main line of the cultural and historical process.
Language and writing
According to the majority of scientists, writing among the peoples inhabiting the territory of Kazakhstan appeared in the Saka epoch.
Among the items recovered from the famous Issyk barrow — the burial place of the «Golden Man» — was a silver dish with an inscription in two lines. On the one hand, the 26 letters of the inscription were similar to the ancient Turkic runic writing. On the other hand, they resembled ancient alphabetic signs found on the Mediterranean coast, especially Greek, Aramaic writing.
One of the types of ancient Turkic writing was runic writing. Ancient Turkic runic records were found in «Kazakhstan on the banks of the Talas, Irtysh, Syr Darya, Ili.In the Scandinavian peoples, the word «rune» means «undisclosed, secret writing». The merit of revealing the secret of this ancient writing belongs to V. Thomsen. The translation into Russian of the Orkhon runic writing was realized by the famous Turkic scholar V. Radlov. The study of runic texts proved that the ancient Turkic-speaking peoples had their own writing.
The runic script had 35 letters and, in addition, four silent combinations: lt, nt, ng, rt. It was read from right to left. The Tanykok script, samples of which were found during excavations near Ulan Bator, also belongs to the Turkic script. Inscriptions on stone seals (on the banks of Talas), on a silver dish (Issyk burial site), rock letters (Almaty region, in the Kokpek mountains) belong to the Old Turkic runic script. Inscriptions on monuments in honor of outstanding rulers of the Turkic epoch — Kültegin, Bilge Kagan and Tonyukok — deserve special attention. They tell about their heroic activity, significant historical events of that time, relations of the Turkic population with other peoples, etc. Ancient Turkic runic writing is a letter (not syllabic) system: separate signs denote either vowel or consonant sounds about ten letters serve to convey combinations of two consonants or a vowel with a consonant. An original feature of writing is the presence of pairs of independent letters for most velar and palatal consonants. This made it possible to build the writing system in such a way as not to write out wide vowels of root vowels and in most cases — all vowels of affixal syllables, except for final open syllables, saving on the length of words.
Monuments in Old Turkic script (mainly epigraphic, a small number of manuscripts are preserved in East Turkestan) were created in those regions of Central and Central Asia and Siberia, where in the early Middle Ages the state formations of Eastern and Western Turks, Turgesh, ancient Uigurs, Yenisei Kirghiz, Karluks, etc. were located.
The alphabet of the classical period (VIII century A.D.) in the Orkhon variety consisted of 38 letters and a word-separating sign. In total, taking into account regional and chronological variants, there are more than 50 graphemes. The direction of writing is horizontal, from right to left. The word-separating sign is placed between words, the end of the sentence is not punctuated. The alphabetical order is unknown, and was probably not traditionally fixed. In the early Middle Ages, along with the Old Turkic script, the Turkic population began to use the Sogdian script, or the so-called medieval Persian script. The variant of Sogdian script, adapted to the norms of their native language, was called Uigur and then Naiman script by the Turks.
The Turkic alphabet consists of 38 letters. Since the ancient Turkic script was spread among the population of Kazakhstan in parallel with Sogdian, there was a process of lexical and phonetic borrowing. Under the influence of the Turkic language, many signs of the Sogdian alphabet underwent significant changes: merged writing was replaced by separate writing (all 38 letter signs of the Turkic alphabet are written separately), smooth rounded outlines acquire geometricized forms, etc. Besides, not all signs of the Sogdian script were perceived by the Turks.
The writing of Turkic peoples retains a special sign form — tamga, which goes back to the ancient sign of property of nomadic cattle breeders. Therefore, despite certain similarities, the lexical and phonetic systems of the Turkic and Sogdian languages are different independent linguistic structures. After the adoption of Islam, Turkic peoples begin to use the Arabic alphabet (VIII-XII centuries). It is the basis of business correspondence already in the Karakhanid state. The most famous scientific, philosophical, religious and edifying works of eastern thinkers of the Middle Ages were written in Arabic script
Science and literature
Al-Farabi (870-950). Among the Obrarian (Farabi) thinkers of the Middle Ages, the most famous is Abu Nasr al-Farabi, the «Aristotle of the East,» a great scholar-encyclopedist. The full name of this brilliant thinker is Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Uzlah ibn Tarhan al-Farabi.
Arab and Persian written sources report that al-Farabi was born in the city of Vesidzh, which was part of the Farab (Otrar) district, in the family of the leader of the Otrar army.
The future scientist received his primary education in an Otrar madrasa. According to the traditions of that time, «in Maverannahr children were trained in various crafts and introduced to knowledge starting from the age of five».
Al-Farabi’s circle of scientific interests was extremely wide. He divided sciences into theoretical (logic, natural science, mathematics) and practical (ethics, politics, etc.). He left profound scientific provisions in almost all branches of knowledge:
Astronomy, medicine, sociology, linguistics, ethics, poetry, music, rhetoric, etc. Abu Nasr al-Farabi wrote about 150 treatises on metaphysics, linguistics, logic, geography, ethics and other branches of knowledge.
Yusuf Balasaguni (1015-1075) was an outstanding poet and thinker of the 11th century. His full name was Yusuf Khaye Khatib Balasaguni. He was born in Balasagun, the capital of the Karakhanid state. The time of his life coincided with the period of internecine fragmentation and political decline of the state. Yusuf Balasaguni paid special attention to the development of Turkic culture, language and writing. He called for the study of sciences with the help of which man could comprehend the mysteries of nature. He is the author of one of the most important historical and literary works — the poem «Kudatgu bilig» («Gracious Knowledge»). This is the first extant written monument of secular literature of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. It is a didactic treatise-poem. It reflects the poet’s contemporary reality, peculiarities of life in various social circles, social relations, political concepts, traditions, beliefs, as well as outlines the moral and ethical principles of the author himself. «Gracious knowledge» was an expression of the literary language and artistic traditions of the Turkic-speaking culture of the XI century. Yusuf Balasaguni received his education in the recognized cultural centers of that time — Farab, Kashgar, Bukhara. Having a perfect command of Arabic and Persian languages, he worked through philosophical and scientific works on various branches of knowledge. Secular people of that time were characterized by versatility of interests, being fond of philosophy and science, poetry and politics, and playing chess. Broadly educated, wise with life experience, he came to Kashgar and here during eighteen months of hard work wrote a great poetic work. According to the Turkish philosopher R. R. Arat, the author was about 54 years old by the time he completed the poem. If this is to be believed, Yusuf Balasaguni was born in 1015-1016. According to the opinion of another researcher of Turkic-speaking poetry A. Dilachar the date of his birth is determined as 1018. He dedicated his famous work to Tabgach-Bogra-Kara-Khakan-Ali Hasan of the Karakhanid dynasty, for which the poet was granted the title of khass-hajib — «minister of the court» or «chief chamberlain».
Mahmud Kashgari (11th century) was a famous Central Asian scholar-philologist. The year of his birth is not precisely established. Researchers believe that Kashgari wrote the main work of his life «Divani lugat at-Turk» («Dictionary of Turkic dialects») in 1072 or in 1078.
Mahmud Kashgari came from Barskhan, a town on the shore of Lake Issyk-Kul. From an early age, the future scientist traveled extensively across the steppe expanses of his homeland. During his travels Mahmud studied the life, customs and traditions of the Turkic population. The main object of his observation was a variety of linguistic material — Turkic words and their meanings, songs, riddles, proverbs, sayings, etc.
Having received education in Kashgar, he continued his studies in Bukhara and Nishapur. Then Mahmud Kashgari came to Baghdad, the center of oriental culture.
Mahmud writes in Arabic to introduce his Turkic-speaking contemporaries to the Arab world. The fact that the scholar chose Arabic as the original language of his work was justified. The heyday of the great Arab civilization was coming to an end, but its cultural values remained a bright page in world history. Realizing this, Mahmud Kashgari strove to leave a peculiar «Turkic trace» in the treasury of Arab culture. Mahmud al-Kashgari’s famous book «Diwan lugat at-turk» is a Turkic encyclopedia in the full sense of the word. It collects and generalizes extensive historical, cultural, ethnographic and linguistic material. «Divan» al-Kashgari is a monument of Turkic culture, which captured the ethical values and norms of behavior, specific worldview of Turkic peoples in the XI century, which absorbed all the previous heritage of ancestors. It gives names of everyday objects, ethnonyms and toponyms, kinship terms, names of various officials, military ranks and titles, types of food, dishes and drinks, food products, types of domestic animals, cereal crops, flora and fauna of the region are described, geographical names are given, the calendar is described (names of months and days of the week), astronomical, astrological, religious, military, medical, sports terms are given. There is information about types of diseases, medicines, anatomical terminology, administrative data, names of historical personalities and mythological heroes, religious rituals, ethnic traditions and customs, children’s games, entertainment and other valuable information and data.
Mahmud’s writings advocated humanistic moral and ethical norms and values and condemned negative human qualities.
Muhammad Haydar Dulati (Douglat) (1500-1551) was a famous scientist who made an invaluable contribution to the science and culture of his time. Until today, all those who are interested in the history of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, the culture of the Turkic people.
Dulati (1500-1551) was a famous scholar who made an invaluable contribution to the science and culture of his time.
There is not much biographical information about Dulati. He was born in Tashkent. Later, fleeing from the persecution of Sheibani Khan, he found refuge in Fergana with his uncle — the famous Babur, the future founder of the Mughal Empire in India. Dulati spent much time in India and then lived in Kashmir, engaged in administrative activities. Here he completed the main work of his life — «Tarikh-i Rashidi», which brought him world fame. This is the only extant book of Muhammad Haidar Dulati. It was written in Persian between 1544 and 1546. This classic work is devoted mainly to the history of Mohammad Haydar Dulati.
This classic work is mainly devoted to the history of Moghulistan, the eastern part of which was located on the territory of Semirechye, occupying the banks of the Talas.
An outstanding scientist of his time, Muhammed Haydar Dulati made a great contribution to Kazakh historiography, leaving valuable information about the origin of Kazakhs, their activities in the historical arena, ties with neighboring peoples, way of life, etc.
Kadyrgali Zhalairi was an outstanding scientist of the Middle Ages. A native of the Zhalayir tribe, he was born in South Kazakhstan in the Otrar-Turkestan region, in 1530. Zhalairi’s ancestors, starting from the Karakhanid era, were close associates of khans, their viziers, and leaders of troops.
In addition to his native language, Kadyrgali knew Arabic and Persian.
Among the monuments of Turkic writing and literature, the works of Kadyrgali Jalairi are the closest to the Kazakh written culture, which gradually emerged from the conglomerate of Turkic languages and scripts. Therefore, they can also be considered as literary monuments close to the ancient Kazakh written language. During this period, Kadyrgali Zhalairi closely engaged in scientific activity. Having started writing in 1600 under Kasym his famous chronicle «Zhami at-taua-rih» («Collection of chronicles»), Kadyrgali Zhalairi finished it in 1602. The chronicle has 157 pages and is written on Chinese paper with special accuracy. Following the established tradition of Oriental thinkers, the scholar dedicated his work to the Russian tsar Boris Godunov. The author in his chronicles, reviewing the eastern countries and cities, gives historical definitions and explanations to the Turkic tribes that inhabited the Kazakh expanses. Having stopped at the Karakhanid era, the author expresses his opinion about the Oguzes. Relying on the chronicle book written in Persian language by Rashi-ad-Din «Zhami at-tauarikh», the scientist gives many historical facts about Genghis Khan’s dynasty and about him. The work contains valuable materials on the life of Kazakh khans, the Kazakh steppe, cities, etc.
Al-Abbas ibn Said al-Jauhari (first half of the IX century) — a native of Farab in South Kazakhstan, mathematician and astronomer. He worked in the «House of Wisdom» in Baghdad at the same time as al-Khwarizmi.
Together with Yahya ibn Abi Mansur, al-Marwarudi and Sanad ibn Ali, he participated in astronomical observations in Baghdad (830) and Damascus (833), on the basis of which he compiled «Zij al-Mamun’s verified Zij». Together with the same astronomers, he participated in determining the length of 1° of the arc of the earth’s meridian on the plain of Sinjar. Al-Jauhari wrote a number of commentaries on Euclid’s «Beginnings». He made an attempt to construct the theory of proportions on the basis of defining equality of relations as equality of incomplete parts when applying Euclid’s algorithm to both relations.
Al-Jauhari attempted a proof of Euclid’s Postulate V, which is reported by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. This proof is based on the implicit assumption that if at the intersection of two lines the third adjacent angles are equal, the same must hold when the same lines are intersected by any line. In the process of proving Postulate V, al-Jauhari proves the theorem that through any point inside an angle a line can be drawn that intersects both sides of the angle. This last statement was implicitly put as the basis of his proof by Lejandre in 1800.
Oteyboydak Tleukabyluly (1388 -1478) was a famous Kazakh scientist, healer, author of a solid medical and ethnographic work «Physician’s Narrative».
In his time he was acquainted with such historical figures as Zhanibek khan, Zhirenshe sheshen. O.Tleukabyluly was a widely known public figure, participated in solving issues related to the fate of the people.
Data about O.Tleukabyluly’s life, dates of his birth and death are taken from his book «Physician’s narrative». Thus, he writes about himself that he started writing the book at the age of 70 at the request of Zhanibek khan and that he finished it at the age of 85 in 1473, when Zhanibek khan died. There is also evidence that Oteyboydak died at the age of about 90.
Oteyboydak’s medical and healing qualities were passed on from his ancestors. Having mastered the rich healing experience he had accumulated, O. Tleukabyluly devoted his whole life to this business and brought folk medicine into a scientific system. Thus, he was able to raise the medicine of his time to a high level. In this field, he, like al-Farabi, neglected the thirst for fame, wealth, everything that is peculiar to mere mortals, and devoted his life to the study of the subtleties of healing.
The book «Physician’s Narrative» has survived to this day, thanks to his relatives. After passing through the tests of time, only one-fourth of the rich legacy has survived to this day. The rest was burned by the Hongweibin during the Cultural Revolution in China.
This book gives quite a lot of insight into the experience of traditional Kazakh folk medicine. The fact that it, using various compounds (mixtures) of over 1000 kinds of medicines, offers over 4000 recipes, convinces us that Oteyboydak was an experienced healer and an outstanding scientist.
The special historical and ethnographic significance of this work is evidenced by the fact that the book mentions the therapeutic properties of 728 types of medicines of plant origin, 318 types of medicines of animal origin, 318 types of medicines derived from metals and metalloids, as well as mentioning about 500 anatomical terms. The invaluable work «Physician’s Narrative» is a testimony to the depth and richness of the Kazakh language already in those times. In 1994, the book was published in Arabic in Urumqi, China, and in 1996 in Kazakh in Almaty. In 1997, the Chinese government awarded the book the «State First Book» prize. To study the heritage of O.Tleukabyluly in China 2 state medical centers were created. The monument to O.Tleukabyluly was established (2002) on Shalkode djailau in Raiymbek district of Almaty region. A street in Almaty is named after him.
Thus, O.Tleukabyluly was not only a scientist-healer, but also a visionary thinker and patriot, well aware of the life, customs, world understanding, spiritual culture of his people.