Not many countries managed to defeat the Mongols in battle at the peak of their power. And almost all of them lost the war anyway, resigned to defeat and paid tribute. Egyptian Mamluks turned out to be a unique case: they not only crushed the nomads in field mounted battles, but went on the offensive and wrested Syria from them.
How it has turned out at warriors of the country of pyramids, considering that such feat could not be repeated by anybody?
There is one main reason and some additional ones — first let’s consider the last ones. The country of pyramids at that time was ruled by Mamluks, that is, former slaves from distant lands, who took the power in their hands. Muslim merchants acquired new warriors in distant lands for a lot of money.
But when Batu and Subudai defeated the Kipchaks of the Northern Black Sea region, it allowed to strengthen all comers, who acquired a lot of experienced fighters. Besides, these captives were very motivated and were eager to get even with their winners.
The second reason was the competent foreign policy of the Mamluks. Already under Berk, the second ruler of the Golden Horde and the first Muslim Khan, the Egyptians made an alliance with the Juchids in order to oppress the Middle Eastern Hulaguids together. The two Mongol states could not divide Azerbaijan, and the pyramid country benefited. It gained a reliable ally with whom it coordinated its military campaigns.
The third reason was moral. After the Mongols captured all major Muslim states, Egypt was perceived as the last outpost and hope of Islam. From Iran, Anatolia, and Syria, thousands of refugees flocked there, as well as Ghazi warriors willing to fight for their faith.
This increased the resources and wealth of an already powerful country, and everyone realized that now there was no turning back. Already after the final victory of Egyptians historian Ibn Khaldun, who was born in Spain, but lived in Cairo, wrote about Khan Hulagu such words: “He has not seen it [Egypt], and does not know the power of Islam”.
But still, the victories of the Mamluks were based on purely geographical reasons. Their center of power was in the Nile valley, where the enemy could not reach simply. The Mongols never had a fleet, and the only land route was through Palestine. This is a very specific land, where for 100-200 kilometers from the coast are humid Mediterranean subtropics. Farther away lie mountains insurmountable for the army, and even farther away — the desert.
So all the advantages of the Mamelukes flowed from here. And these same factors offset the Mongol superiority. For example, there was only one road south from Syria and Lebanon. It ran through the Isreel Valley, where the ancient city of Megiddo was located. Not in vain in the sacred writings it was called the place of some “last battle”: all armies in any case met here. The battle of Ain Jalut also took place here, when the Mamelukes defeated the nomads for the first time. Therefore, it was enough for the defending side to control the main passes, and the aggressors could not pass.
There was no steppe here, which prevented the deployment of large cavalry armies and shortened the time of military campaigns. The scorched earth tactics justified themselves here to the full: very soon the Mongols began to starve. Their steppe horses were not accustomed to eat grain, while for Mamluk horses it was the main source of food.
This factor, as well as the mountainous terrain deprived the natives of the steppe of their main advantage — mobility. Moreover, all their actions were deeply predictable — all battles with the Egyptians took place either in the Isreel Valley or in the vicinity of the Syrian city of Homs.
In addition to strategic mobility, tactical mobility suffered. There are not many large plains in the region, there are everywhere deserts and rocks, in connection with which it is impossible to use the Mongolian tactics of tulugmu — constantly disturbing the enemy without approaching. Circumferential maneuvers are practically impossible, the only option is a frontal battle face to face. Unless, of course, really large forces are involved.
And in such a battle, the Egyptians had the advantage. Their horses were bigger and faster, their armor was much better, their weapons were designed for close combat. The Mongols simply did not have that much heavy and medium cavalry due to the predominance of their light mounted archers. The first clash with the Egyptians at Ain Jalut occurred in this style. After a short skirmish, Kitbuga’s Temnik led his men into battle and had some success. But then force took its course, and in a long close fight the Mamluks were defeated.
In the 1260s and 1290s, the opponents divided Syria. Over the next decades, Egypt took control of it, and then the Hulaguid power collapsed, and the Mamluk state became the hegemon in the west of the Islamic world for several centuries.