The story of the fall of medieval Muslim Baghdad, the end of the Abbasid Caliphate, as a result of the Mongol invasion in 1258, despite the scale of the tragedy and the remaining evidence of the event, is not widely publicized.
Meanwhile, the tragic end of the Caliph al-Mustasim, together with the destruction of such a significant, culturally developed city, had an indelible impact on the course of world history.
Above, the imprisonment of Caliph al-Mustasim in a tower (fragment of an image from the 15th century, France). The siege of Baghdad by Mongols in 1258 (fragment of a 14th century Persian image). Below are contemporary illustrations.
I. The Abbasid Caliphate on the eve of the Mongol invasion.
In the middle of the XIII century, the Abbasid Caliphate was experiencing by no means the best of times: infighting and intrigues, scarce on merit, close to the order weakened the luster of the former greatness of the caliphs. The late Abbasid caliphate had already shrunk to the lands of modern central and southern Iraq.
Immediately before the described events Baghdad suffered its own misfortunes — floods, fires, and sectarian strife within the walls of the city. Taking all factors into account, the city could no longer be called as remarkable for its beauty or grandeur as it had been in the best Abassid times. But it was still the most important intellectual center of Islam, a really big city by the standards of the Middle Ages, with a rich history, architecture, and cultural traditions.
In these difficult times, namely in 1242, al-Mustasim became caliph. It was he who was destined to become the last Abbasid of Baghdad. What kind of a man was he? Contemporaries remembered the caliph al-Mustasim quite unflatteringly. In the annals one can discern a portrait of a man who fell under amusement and pleasure, a passionate collector of birds, a slave of women. Shortsighted and indecisive, he largely neglected his duties as head of state.
Al-Mustasim’s entourage was little better. The court was mired in intrigue. For example, one Shia vizier, Ibn al-Alqami, competed with many Sunni courtiers. And perhaps the massacre of Shi’ites prompted the vizier to later secretly support Mongols loyal to the Shi’ites. And the commander-in-chief of the caliph’s armed forces, Davatdar, was thinking of taking the throne.
Life of the Abbasid Caliphate — Medieval Images. Reconstruction of a view of Baghdad (fragment). «House of Wisdom» — Islamic academy that existed from the 9th century until the Mongol invasion (was destroyed).
It is clear that in general the Abbasid treasury was pretty much emptied, while the state of the future conquerors-Mongols is as great as ever, and the Mongol ruler Grand Khagan Munke-khan nurtured ambitious plans for the conquest of territories. His thoughts included conquering the Abbasid lands and the rest of the Middle East.
The Mongols had been threatening Baghdad since the 1220s, but that was only a warm-up. Until about 1254, the Abbasid caliph symbolically forced a gesture of submission to the Mongols. However, this was not enough for Genghis Khan’s grandson, Munke Khan. That is why he entrusted his brother Hulagu-khan with two hundred thousand people with the order to subdue all the territories of the Middle East — up to the Nile River.
In 1254 Hulagu leisurely began his campaign, advancing his numerous army. The way passed through the lands of modern Afghanistan and Iran. Most of the rulers the Mongols met on the way surrendered, but there were some who resisted. In any case, by the end of 1256 the Mongols had reached the lands of the Abbasid Caliphate.
In the center is a coin from the al-Mustasin era. Late architecture of the Abbasid Caliphate. View of Abbasid Baghdad (reconstruction).
Hulagu had previously asked al-Mustasim for military aid, which he did not provide. Of course, for Hulagu, this was the excuse he needed to invade Iraq. The Abbasid ruler soon met the ambassadors with a demand for submission with a typical Mongol threat in case of refusal:
— When I lead my armies against Baghdad, even if you hide in the sky or in the ground… I will not leave a single person alive in your kingdom, and I will consign your city and country to the flames.
The Caliph parried as follows:
— You may come with a plan, troops, a siege, but how are you going to capture the star? Does not the prince [Hulagu] know that from east to west, from king to beggar, from old to young, all who are God-fearing and God-honoring are servants of this court and soldiers of my army?
Later, the vizier endeavored to persuade al-Mustasim to request peace. The dawatar, along with other cronies on the contrary, insisted on no concessions.
One way or another, the Caliph began to gather his army. Kurds were hired to defend the city. However, later the Caliph decided not to keep them — they left. The Caliphate thought about attracting Muslim volunteers from Egypt and Syria, but the idea was not successful.
Hulagu did not sit idle either. He assembled his coalition of peoples, for example, attracting Armenians and Georgians to help the Mongols. Allies willy-nilly, of course, had no opportunity to refuse….
II. The Mongol invasion of Baghdad
In November 1257 the Mongols moved to Baghdad through the modern territories of western Iran. The huge army according to some calculations amounted to about 150,000 Mongols. And taking into account the various “helpers on their own will” (Armenians, Georgians, Iranians, etc.), the total number of the army reached about 300,000 people. Of course, part of the Mongols remained to hold the already conquered lands. Still, annals say that directly on the conquest of Baghdad the Mongols engaged about 200,000 warriors.
Brothers — Munke Khan (above) and Hulagu Khan (below). Mongol Wars.
The Mongol invasion of Iraq was in many ways a textbook description of Mongol warfare. Their large army was split into several groups, each moving quickly and heading towards Baghdad from different directions. This caused confusion among the Iraqi defenders as they had little idea where the Mongols were coming from.
The Abbasid field army under the command of Dawatdar was first stationed at Baqubah, east of Baghdad, but was ordered to return to the city and guard the western side when it became known that some Mongol forces had crossed a makeshift bridge. over the Euphrates near Tikrit.
On January 11, the Iraqi army encountered advanced units of Mongol forces at Anbar, about 30 miles northwest of Baghdad. The Abbasid army defeated this group but decided not to pursue. Instead, the Abbasid army stayed in the fields and celebrated their victory with food and drink. The Armenian chronicler added that Davatdar sent messengers to the Caliph with the words:
-I have defeated them all, and tomorrow I will finish off the few survivors.
But the defeated Mongols were only a small scouting party sent forward to reconnoiter the Abbasid army. By day’s end, the main force approached. As the night passed, the Mongols surrounded the Iraqi troops and destroyed several dams and canals. When Dawatdar and his soldiers awoke the next day, they were in great trouble as water had flooded all around them.
Now the Mongols attacked in full force and the Abbasid army was defeated. One chronicler stated that 12,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed or drowned here. Another reported that only three husbandmen, including Dawatdar, managed to return to Baghdad.
After Davatdar’s defeat, no further attempts were made to engage the Mongols before they reached Baghdad. Instead, work was done to prepare the city’s defenses, such as installing catapults and other siege machines. By some estimates, the city was defended by eighty thousand men.
Unfortunately for Baghdad, tens of thousands of refugees rushed into the city in an attempt to get ahead of the advancing Mongol armies. With all these destitute arriving in Baghdad, the city’s food supply would be depleted and the streets would become crowded and littered with garbage.
On January 18, 1258, Hulagu and his troops rallied on the outskirts of Baghdad. The city was surrounded, and the Mongols built several pontoon bridges across the Tigris using captured boats. The Mongols did not immediately attack Baghdad. Instead, they built their own wall around the entire city day and night and organized a moat, part of which was filled with water. Behind the improvised walls, the Mongols built mounds of brick and rubble, on top of which they set up their siege machines, including catapults and fuel throwers.
The Caliph did not lose hope for peace and made one last attempt. He sent his vizier and the patriarch of the Baghdad Christian community to Hulagu with gifts. They met with the Mongol leader, but the efforts were in vain. On January 29, the Mongol offensive began.
III.Fall of Baghdad.
According to a Chinese source, the western part of Baghdad, which had no walls, fell on the first day of fighting. Interestingly, the Shiite-dominated areas, according to some historians, welcomed the Mongols. But if this was not true, they were not well fortified for serious resistance.
Meanwhile, Hulagu directed the might of the siege machines at the southeastern tower of Ajami. Instead of stones, they used pieces of palm trees, which the Mongols threw at Baghdad from their catapults. After three days of such an assault, the Ajami tower was destroyed, but the defenders of the city repulsed the onslaught.
Curiously, the Mongols besides pelted Baghdad with letters by means of arrows, in which it was guaranteed that no harm would come to the Shiites, Christians, Jews, merchants, scholars and all non-military citizens if the city was surrendered.
Siege of Baghdad. Below left are the wars of the Abassid Caliphate.
***
On February 1, Dawatdar with a maximum of ten thousand men moved down the Tigris River either hoping to escape or for a follow-up attack from the rear. Some sources believe that the Caliph was with him along with the purpose of escape. The mystery is still unsolved, but it is a fact that the Mongols prevented the attempt with the same arrows and catapults with fire. Davatdar turned back.
Two days later, Hulagu dared to take the walls of Baghdad. Some Mongol troops, along with Georgians, managed to occupy the ramparts at the Ajemi Tower from the morning, but it was not until the evening that the rest of the walls of Baghdad were taken by the Mongols.
Curiously, having taken the walls, Mongols took a wait-and-see position by order of Hulagu. Maybe because of fear of possible losses in the urban battles in the streets of Baghdad, they were in no hurry.
A few days later, it became clear that the city’s defenders were losing fortitude. Some civilians, courtiers and even soldiers slowly began to surrender. What happened to them? Some were spared, others executed.
Davatdar himself tried to surrender to the Mongols, but the invaders sent him back to the city to convince the others to surrender the city and stop fighting. Davatdar fulfilled this mission and the next day went to the Mongol camp, where he was beheaded….
The Taking of Baghdad — modern and medieval images (excerpts).
***
Meanwhile, the Caliph al-Mustasim was in his palace in confusion. He did not know how to act. It was at this point that the vizier was able to convince al-Mustasim that his last chance to somehow save the situation was to surrender as soon as possible. That this was the only possible option to get another chance to remain ruler of Baghdad.
On February 10, the Caliph, along with his family and 3,000 courtiers, marched outside the city walls. He dared to surrender to the mercy of the Mongols. Soon he came face to face with Hulagu. And the latter did not show any rage, on the contrary he inquired about the Caliph’s well-being.
Hulagu asked al-Mustasim to «tell the inhabitants of the city to lay down their arms and come out so that we can count them». The caliph obeyed. Soon the remaining defenders of Baghdad went outside the walls of the city and laid down their arms as the Caliph had commanded them.
As soon as all these men were unarmed, the Mongols with swords attacked the helpless. No one was spared. The Caliph watched with his own eyes the horror of his unfortunate compatriots being massacred. He wept, regretting that he had obeyed the vizier and withdrawn the defense of the city, saying to himself, «My enemy has won.»
***
Once the Caliph’s warriors had been outnumbered, Baghdad could be taken with ease. On February 13, Hulagu did so and ordered his soldiers to enter the city. Most chronicles say that the sacking of Baghdad lasted a week. But it is difficult to assess the exact scale of the disaster. The evidence varies widely. The Syrian chronicler Bar counted tens of thousands of victims. Chinese sources speak of a hundred thousand dead. Hulagu himself boasted that at least 200,000 people were slaughtered. Later writers multiplied these figures from century to century — 800,000, 1,000,000. By the end of the fifteenth century the count exceeded 2,000,000.
Modern historians know that the population of Baghdad was no more than half a million people. In addition, the Mongols spared the Shiite, Jewish and Christian communities. There are reports that many Sunnis survived the fall of the city. Among them was Davatdar’s son, who soon found himself in the service of the Mongols. Finally, some merchants may have paid off with their lives.
But in any case, it was a terrifying days and weeks for the people of Baghdad.
***
III. The fate of the Caliph al-Mastasim and the city.
Now that the city had been taken by the Mongols, it remained for Hulagu to determine the fate of the unfortunate Caliph. At first al-Mustasim and the members of the seven were housed and guarded in a tent outside the city. Hulagu was predominantly interested in the caliph’s treasures and began plundering Baghdad palaces.
On February 15, al-Mustasim was summoned to Hulagu, who allegedly addressed the caliph with these words:
— You are the lord here, and we are guests. Give us whatever you are rich in that will suit us.» The frightened Caliph hurried to give Hulagu a lot of jewelry, which then dispersed among Hulagu’s cronies.
The Mongol conqueror then presented the caliph with a golden tray, ordering al-Mustasim to eat the item. Al-Mustasim said that it was inedible. On this Hulagu questioned:
— Then why did you save it and not give it to your warriors? Why did you not melt down arrowheads from these iron doors and come forward to the bank of the river so that I could not cross it?
The Caliph replied:
— Such was the will of the Almighty.
— Your fate is also the will of the Most High.
***
On February 20, Hulagu decided to leave the ruined Baghdad because of the stench from the bodies of the slain, as well as the smell of burning of the damaged buildings. Hulagu took the Caliph and his family with him. Hulagu kept pondering what to do with the Caliph. The formidable Mongol was inclined to spare al-Mustasim and even thought to leave him as a puppet caliph. However, his advisers dissuaded Hulagu from such a step, as it would allegedly provoke a Muslim revolt in the future.
The advisors were persuasive. Al-Mustasim together with his eldest son and a number of close associates were killed the same night. The next day the rest of the caliph’s relatives were executed. It remains a mystery how al-Mustasim met his last moments.
Probably the most plausible of all versions is the description that the caliph was placed in a leather sack and then trampled. The Mongols resorted to such an execution because they feared bringing misfortune upon themselves if noble blood was spilled on the ground.
Of course, Marco Polo’s story about how Hulagu walled up the Caliph in a tower filled with riches with the words:
-Now, Caliph, eat to your heart’s content your favorite riches, for apart from them you will get nothing.
According to this version, four days later the unfortunate al-Mustasim died of hunger and thirst. Either way, the caliph shared the tragic fate of the fall of his state.
Hulagu (top left), al-Mustasim (right).
***
On the day of the Caliph’s assassination, Hulagu freed the vizier. The latter became the Mongol governor of Baghdad, where the vizier, along with other surviving statesmen, soon set about rebuilding the ruined city. Hulagu sent three thousand of his men to Baghdad, who were busy burying the dead, clearing roads, and restoring trading posts.
These measures to restore life in Baghdad were an attempt by Hulagu to gain the respect of the local population. Curiously, Hulagu ordered all the surviving religious leaders of the city to decide whether it was better for them to remain under the rule of a just unbeliever, or an unjust believer.
Despite the hesitation, a fatwa was eventually issued stating that the scholars and religious muzzies preferred the just infidel. For Hulagu, this was a propaganda tool — a legitimate justification for Mongol power.
It took only three weeks for the Mongols to take Baghdad. Baghdad shared the fate of many so many other fallen cities and fortresses so far apart in the path of the Mongol conquerors. Of course, the capture of Baghdad destroyed the Abbasid caliphate. It was a severe blow to the world of Islam, destroying a city so highly developed for its age and possessing great cultural significance.
But Hulagu’s triumph was short-lived and fragile.
A couple of years later, a resistance movement to the Mongols’ power was born. By that time, the Mongols had no luck in conquering Syrian territories. Clashes with the energetic Mamluks began. As a result, the seemingly quick and easy conquest of the local lands resulted in long and disastrous years of wars that lasted more than fifty years.
Baghdad, on the other hand, took centuries to recover, while history did not stand still….