The end of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century can be considered the final stage of the Mongol conquests, the beginning of which was laid by Genghis Khan. The ruling top of the Yuan Empire, a Mongolian state in China, founded in 1260 — 1270 by Genghis Khan’s grandson Khubilai Khan after the collapse of the unified world Mongol power, after Timur Khan (Chinese temple name Chenzong) came to power, by the beginning of the fourteenth century paid attention mainly to solving problems of domestic political character, in particular to strengthening its dominance in China.(1, p.294).
After the death of Khubilai Khan, the Yuan Empire enters a period of deep political and economic crisis. As the Confucian scholar Zhang Yan-hao wrote: «During the reign of Khubilai Khan appointed officials to positions according to their business qualities and abilities, and now do not observe this rule and assign people ranks and titles in violation of the law. In the period of Khubilai Khan they did not punish those who made representations to Khan, but now they execute them without looking into the reasons. During the reign of Khubilai Khan, paper money was issued for fixed amounts, but now it is issued at any time and as much as required. During the reign of Khubilai Khan taxes and duties were fixed, and nowadays (from taxpayers) they take them at any time and (take away) everything to the clean».(2, p.72) At the Yuan court the struggle between different groups of the ruling Yuan class, in which the tone was set by Mongols and more and more coming to the forefront in the Yuan policy Kipchaks, who served Mongols in China, intensified. As emphasized in Chinese sources, Khubilai Khan’s successors led a dissolute life, spending huge sums from the state treasury on their whims. After Khubilai Khan, the deterioration of the situation in the country, cumbersome court administration, non-compliance with laws, violation of the order of election to the Yuan throne, squandering and embezzlement of state funds became serious problems undermining the very foundations of the Mongolian state in China.
In their foreign policy activities, Khubilai Khan’s successors paid the main attention to the struggle with the Chinggisids hostile to the Yuan throne, the rulers of the Mongolian state of Chagataids in Central Asia, who challenged the Yuan’s power over Mongolia and East Turkestan. The war with the Chagataids, begun as early as the reign of Khubilai Khan, lasted until the 14th century for 40 years and was concluded in the reign of Timur Khan, Khubilai’s successor on the Yuan throne. The end of the war led to the resumption of international trade along the Great Silk Road, which favored the economic situation in the Yuan Empire. Trade routes were once again safe, organized and under the control of the Mongol state in China, which created a most favorable regime for foreign trade, while providing benefits and directly financially supporting its merchants and manufacturers. Other achievements of Timur Khan include the publication of the code of Yuan laws «Da-De lui-ling» — «Laws and regulations of the reign of Da-De». However, the economic situation during his reign was deteriorating. Total budget expenditures continued to exceed revenues. «Although 19000 liang of gold, 10000 liang of silver and 3600000 assignments of paper money are received every year, but still they are not enough to meet the needs. In addition, 200000 assignments have been borrowed from the amount of paper money issued by the Zhi Yuan Board. I ask you to spend carefully and save money», — his dignitary reported to Timur-Khan. (2 , с. 47)
By this time, the descendants of «samu», a privileged Yuan class, formed on the ethnic principle from the countries lying to the west of China, played an increasingly important political and military role in the system of Mongol rule in China and became one of the important factors that influenced the policy of the Yuan court. This was primarily due to the fact that the selected units of the Imperial Guard, established under Khubilai Khan, were formed to a large extent from Turkic warriors — natives of the Great Steppe — Kipchaks and Kangli, Tanguts and Ases — natives of the Caucasus. The creation of these troops strengthened the influence of Turks, especially Kipchaks and Kangli, due to the appointment of their representatives to the highest command positions in the guard. Khubilai Khan’s successors continued to pay much attention to the strengthening of the guard formed from «samu», seeing in it a reliable support of the throne. Thus, in 1295, immediately after Timur-khan’s accession to the throne, the «samu» guard was established, which included units of Kipchaks and Kangli. During 1297 — 1307 the number of the Kipchak guard, established under Khubilai Khan, increased by 6 thousand soldiers. In 1308 the Kipchak guard was divided into right and left wing guards, and in 1310 the Kangla guard was re-formed and reinforced with an additional contingent of troops. All kangla warriors who had served in other armies were selected to serve in the Guard.( 5, Juan 99, p.27188/1236)
The influential political and military figures of this time at the Yuan court were the Kipchaks Chzhanur, his son Yantimur, the Kangla brothers Inaltoto and Asanbuka. Chzhanur began his service during the lifetime of his father Tutukh and took an active part in the wars of Khubilai Khan and his successors on the northwestern borders of the empire. He distinguished himself during the campaign to Badakhshan, for which he was appointed commander of the right wing of the Kipchak guard. In 1297 he headed the Kypchak guard. The next year he defeated the troops of Duva, the leader of the anti-Tian coalition of the Mongol nobility. In 1299 Zhanur was summoned to the capital and received special honors from Emperor Timur. At the same time he went on a campaign to Western Mongolia under the heir to the Yuan throne Haisan. In 1301 in the mountains Tszegangshan warriors Zhanur exterminated the army of Duva. Haisan, who observed this battle, said: «Of such fierce battles I had no idea.»( 5, Juan 128, p.27442/1490)
In 1303, Zhanur returned to the capital and was received by the emperor. Timur Khan highly appreciated the military merits of Chzhanur: «You, Chzhanur, ensured the security of the northern borders and achieved great victories. Gold is not enough to evaluate your merits. Zhanur remained the head of the Kypchak guard and was appointed to the new position of deputy head of Shumiyuan, the Privy Council, the institution in charge of secret military operations and foreign policy. There were also awarded 10 thousand soldiers who fought under the command of Haisan and Zhanur.(5, tszyuan 128, p.27442 /A contemporary of this era, the Persian historian Rashid-ad-din in turn noted that among the emirs, «sitting with troops on the borders to protect the state, was Chunkur, aka Chzhanur, the son of Toktak, i.e. Tutukh, one of the great emirs.»(4, vol.3, pp.184-185)
Together with Chzhanur under the command of Haisan, Inaltoto Kangli also fought. In 1301 he distinguished himself in the battle with Haidu, the leader of Central Asian Mongols. In battle, he was always by Haisan’s side, ensuring his safety. Inaltoto began his service from the age of 14 under Khubilai Khan and did not lose his high status at the court of his successor Timur Khan. His brother Asanbuka enjoyed the favor of the heir to the throne, Haisan. Haisan said about Asanbuka: «Asanbuka’s talent as a military leader and statesman cannot be disregarded». Asanbuka distinguished himself in battles with Haidu in Altai and Hanhai.
Among the inner circle of the heir to the throne, the future Yuan emperor Haisan, whose Chinese temple name as the highest personage was Wuzong, was the young Yantimur, who was destined later to play an important political role in the Yuan Empire. «When Uzzun pacified Shofan, i.e. Western Mongolia, he participated in the formation of the Guard.»( 5, Juan 136, p.25518/1566; Juan 138, p.27533/1581)
In the service of Haisan was a naiman10 Nantszyatai, a famous commander of Khubilai Khan, whose name is associated with the defeat of the Chinese empire Sung by the Mongols. He held the high post of a dungeon commander of 10 thousand soldiers. In 1307, on the eve of the decisive events, he left the service and settled in Huaizhou, where he came to trust Ayurbarvada, brother of Haisan, who had views on the Yuan throne.
In 1307, Timur Khan died and three representatives of the ruling Chinggisid branch in China emerged as contenders for the Yuan throne. One of them was Haisan, who was at that time with his troops in the region of the Altai Mountains. Having learned about the death of Timur Khan, Haisan went to Karakorum, the old capital of the once united Mongol Empire, and now a province of the Yuan Empire, where he convened the Chingizid Kurultai to legally substantiate his claim to the Yuan throne, and not to look like a usurper like his ancestor Khubilai Khan.
The second claimant was Ananda, the grandson of Khubilai Khan, and the latter appointed him as heir, but then tilted in favor of Timur Khan. Ananda was a Muslim, which caused strong opposition to his candidacy not only from the Mongols, Uighurs, Tibetans and Tanguts, who professed Buddhism and Christianity, and who occupied as «samu» a high position at court, but also from the Chinese nobility, who collaborated with the Mongol regime.
The third claimant Ayurbarvada was the grandson of Khubilai Khan’s son Jingim, who was heir to the throne until his death in 1285. The father of Haisan and Ayurbarvada was Jingim’s second son Dharmabala. Ayurbarvada had more support among the members of the ruling Genghisid dynasty and the Yuan bureaucracy than Ananda. Nevertheless, Ananda, who held the title of Anshi wang, i.e. «prince, conqueror of the West», claimed the Yuan throne. The «Yuan-shi» states it this way: «Anxi wang, seizing the moment, schemed to become the successor of the great deed.»(5 tszyuan 136, p.27519/1567)
In his claim to the throne, Ananda was supported by Empress Dowager Burhan, wife of the deceased Timur Khan, and high-ranking officials led by the second person in the Yuan government of Zhongshusheng, Zochengxiang, i.e. the left minister, Ahutai. Taking advantage of Daidu’s absence from the capital after the death of Timur Khan Haisan, Ayurbarwad and their empress mother, Ananda tried to seize power. But his plot was uncovered by Haisan’s trusted men Inaltoto and Asanbuka, who were in Daidu at the time. Despite the attempts of the conspirators to apprehend Inaltoto, he managed to leave the capital and inform Haisan of all events: ‘Quickly reported to Uzzun to help the state… The mother, i.e. the empress, was concerned. To determine the destinies of her two children, Haisan and Ayurbarwad, she called an astrologer to guess. She asked him whom to put on the throne. He replied that a great disorder and calamity was foreseen and it would be difficult for both of them. These words of the astrologer sowed doubts in the soul of the mother, empress dowager. She sent a crony to tell Wuzong, «You are elder and younger brothers and were born to me. Do you feel no kinship and are so far apart? The astrologer’s words foretell that our fate is unkind. It makes you homesick.» Wuzong listened and was silent. Approaching Toto, he said: «I have been diligently guarding the frontier for ten years and accordingly hold a high position. To whom should the holy utensils go? (i.e., the throne.) To whom it is clear, there is no doubt.» The Empress guessed and received the answer, «The ways of Heaven are inscrutable. Who knows beforehand what will happen, what I will do? These thoughts of Heaven from above must be combined with the desires of the people below. Then it will be clear who Heaven wants as emperor. If I, Wuzong, rule, a day of my reign will be enough for glory for ten thousand years. Can one rely on an astrologer to deny the will of the ancestors? It must be the dignitaries who are doing the deeds, seizing power and killing. They’re afraid I’ll one day expose their crimes. So they plot treason and undermine the strong roots of statehood. Toto, you are the one who secretly reports all vices to the emperor…» (5 Juan 138, p.27531/1579)
Asanbuka stayed behind to warn Ayurbarwad and the mother empress who were on their way to Daidu. On their arrival, they were already aware of Anand’s plot. On March 20, 1307, Ayurbarwad’s supporters, including Nanjatay, captured Anand, Empress Burhan, Ahutay and other conspirators. For his participation in the arrest of Anand, Ayurbarvada granted Nanjiatai a rich estate. Two days later, a representative arrived in the capital from Haisan to demand that Anand explain his actions. But by this time the investigation of the case, which was conducted by Asanbuka, was finished and Ananda, judging from the data of «Yuan-shi», in 1307 was executed, «granted death». (5, Juan 138, p.27532/1580) That is why his biography was outside the dynastic history of «Yuan-shi».
Thus, the fall of Anand was organized by the cliques of Haisan and Ayurbarwad, who rallied against a common enemy. After Anand’s departure from the Yuan political arena, Haisan was slow to return to the capital as he had no confidence in Ayurbarwad’s intentions. Ayurbarwad’s ambassador to Haisan on his return said that the latter would negotiate the succession to the throne only through the mediation of his confidant Asanbuka. Empress Targi, the mother of Haisan and Ayurbarwad, was inclined to support Ayurbarwad. On the advice of Zhanur, who formally requested Haisan to return to the capital, «to settle great affairs and take the government of the Celestial Empire into his own hands,» Haisan moved on Daidu at the head of his troops. Inaltoto was sent ahead. He arrived at the capital and entered into negotiations with the empress and Ayurbarwada, granting them Haisan’s demands. Meanwhile, Haisan and Zhanur advanced from the western and eastern roads leading to the capital. They each had 10,000 warriors under their command. Inaltoto and Asanbuka, after long negotiations, succeeded in persuading Ayurbarwad and the empress to recognize Haisan as the new Yuan emperor, and to declare Ayurbarwad, whose Chinese temple name was Zhenzong, as his heir. After Inaltoto had returned from Daidu to Haisan’s headquarters and discussed the results of his mission, Haisan, at the head of his troops, entered Shandu or Kaiping, the summer capital of the Yuan Chinggisids, where he was solemnly welcomed by Ayurbarwada and the empress, accompanied by high-ranking officials, and honored as emperor. As «Yuan-shi» writes, it was only after this that «Wuzong’s doubts about Zhenzong dissipated and he officially declared him his heir.» ( 5, Juan 138, p.27531/1579)
Thus, Ayurbarvada was forced to give up his claim to the Yuan throne in favor of Haisan. The decisive role in this was played by Haisan’s support from the troops with whom he fought in Mongolia and Altai. The striking force of these troops were the units of the Imperial Guard, formed from Kipchaks and Kangli, which were headed by battle-hardened and personally loyal to Haisan military commanders Chzhanur, Inaltoto, Asanbuka and Yantimur. Therefore, Ayurbarvada ceded the throne to Haisan without resistance, but at the same time achieved the condition that Ayurbarvada, not Haisan’s son, should be the heir. In Shandu the Kurultai of the ruling dynasty in China confirmed the decision of the Genghisids at Karakorum to elevate Haisan to the Yuan throne. In the decree on ascension to the throne Haisan emphasized his legal right, as it is known that the founder of the Yuan Empire, Khubilai Khan, so honored by descendants, nevertheless, was not elected at the kurultai of Genghisids as a great khan.
Upon ascending the throne, Haisan distributed 3.5 million dinars, which was ¾ of the amount of money received during the year in the Yuan treasury. In 1311, in the last year of his reign, out of 11 million din of state money, 3 million din were distributed as gifts. This manifested the mentality of the Mongol khans, who demonstrated to their subjects their generosity and contemptuous attitude to wealth, because the tradition of gift exchange, brought from the steppe way of life, in fact, from pre-industrial society, was a universal means of establishing relations between individuals. The symbolic exchange of gifts, both between equals and between sovereign and subjects, allowed the transformation of the exchange of material goods into a relationship of psychological dependence, which in turn enabled Yuan emperors to obtain new resources and, by distributing «gifts,» to increase their prestige. The most important virtues that a ruler should possess, at least among the ruling classes of the Yuan Empire, were considered to be generosity and justice. His generosity in their view was expressed in the distribution of lands, titles and rich gifts, in the organization of lavish feasts, in the popular consciousness — in the organization of festivals and spectacles, in the distribution of abundant alms. Thus, the increase in the social status of the Yuan emperors was carried out through the mechanisms of «prestige economy»: on the one hand, through the organization of mass festivals, where the accumulated wealth was ostentatiously given away, and on the other hand, through the development of exchange relations and the formation of a network of dependents and debtors who could not make a reciprocal offering. «Prestige economy» was one of the reasons why the Yuan emperors came to power. Without understanding the essence of its mechanisms, it is difficult to determine the peculiarities of power relations in medieval Mongols, as well as to understand the reasons for the emergence and flourishing of the Yuan Empire.(3, pp.291-295)
Haisan took measures to strengthen his power. First of all, he appointed the most loyal people to the posts that controlled the state apparatus and the imperial guard, the striking force of the Yuan army. Inaltoto and Asanbuka, who had been instrumental in elevating Haisan to the throne, were appointed to high positions in the state apparatus. Inaltoto became head of the Privy Council and then assumed the post of leftist minister, the second most important post in the Yuan government. Asanbuka became yuchengxiang, i.e., the right or chief minister of the government, and head of the reorganized kangla guard. Zhanur, as a person especially close to Haisan, as early as in 1301 for his victory over Duwa received as a wife a girl from the Chinggisid dynasty ruling in China and was appointed commander of the Kypchak guard. Unlike Inaltoto and Asanbuka, he made his career exclusively in the military field. He «was granted a large imperial tent and other things. He became an official, retaining his former posts in Shumiyuan and the position of the head of the Kypchak guard.» (5, Juan 128, p.27442/1490) His son Yantimur was also a favorite of Haisan, «served in the emperor’s guard. Wuzong emphasized him and brought him close to himself. His children served the empire in the steppes and guarded its borders…» (5,juan 138, pp.27533/1581)
Among Emperor Haisan’s cronies were not only natives of the Turkic steppe — Kipchaks and Kangli, but also Mongols, representatives of the dominant ethnic group in the Yuan Empire, the Tanguts. Thus, members of Haisan’s clique were a Mongol from the Merkit tribe, Bayan or Bayan, who later played a prominent role in Yuan history, the Tangut Chitaybushi and his sons Erchini and Liji. They had previously fought under Haisan in Mongolia. Chitaibushi and his sons led units of the imperial guard formed from Tanguts, while Bai’an led the guard of the Ases. Among Haisan’s supporters were natives of the oases of East Turkestan and Semirechye, the steppes of Inner Mongolia, the Turkic-speaking Uighurs Yerantimur and Ilchei, the Karluk Tahai, and the Onguts Mazzuchan and Chaoshiyan. Tahai was the military commander of the Karluk Guard units and was subordinate to Zhanur. Yerantimur, Mazzuchang and Chaoshiyan, being high-ranking officials, promoted the accession of Haisan to the throne, acting in close contact with Asanbuka and Inaltoto. Ilchei, aka Wantsze of Chinese sources, in 1311 became the right hand of the chief Yuan minister.(5, tszüan 122, p.27380/1428; tsz.124, p.27399/1447; tsz.142, p.27577/1625; tsz.180, p.27945/1993).
After Haisan’s accession to the throne, Inaltoto proposed to him to consolidate power by changing the order of succession. As mentioned above, in 1307 Haisan and Ayurbarvada came to an agreement, according to which Ayurbarvada should be Haisan’s heir, and the latter in turn should be succeeded by Haisan’s son. To strengthen the position of his protégé Haisan, his inner circle demanded a revision of this agreement and advised Haisan to appoint his son as the heir. Inaltoto was especially active in favor of abolishing the agreement: «The son of the sovereign is growing little by little, and the sovereign is very tired of labor lately, it is necessary to establish in advance who will inherit the throne. When doing great things in the interest of the state, one cannot help but be cautious. Previously, the brothers of the emperor respectfully performed great deeds, merits were brought to the altars of their ancestors, and they themselves were in the Eastern Palace. There was a certain order to everything: from elder to younger, from uncle to nephew, from generation to generation, the throne was inherited. That was the way it was. Who could doubt, for that age, the justice of such an order of things? I, Inaltoto, servants of the sovereign such as we are, have no right to express officially our opinions on the decrees of the state. How can we attempt their perfection? But can order be preserved now, when today the throne of the elder passes from the elder to the younger, and tomorrow the uncle to the nephew? Let others forget their duty. Heaven sees everything as it really is. I cannot change anything when others violate their duty.» Though the sovereign disagreed, he could not refute Inaltoto’s words. After all, he rewarded both those who did not observe loyalty and promoted those who did not observe the laws. Thus, wealth was diminished and titles complained of. And awards and ranks are the means by which people can be used in the service. Ranks are used to judge virtue, honors are used to judge merit. But how can it be used when there are extremes, slowness or haste, and so there is no use. The Zhongshu, i.e. the government, was in charge of money and bread, public works, laws, executions and prisons. And a dozen other things. If we follow what your servant has said, then we should sincerely adhere to the ancient regulations, and your humble servant is ready to give all his strength for the good of the cause together with everyone else. And if not, what use can your servant be? (i.e., resigning).» (5 , tszyuan 124, p.27532/1580)
The short reign of Khaisan Khan was characterized by deepening crisis in the country. Exorbitant embezzlement and orgies organized at the Yuan court greatly upset state affairs, important state positions became a subject of trade. According to Chinese sources, even the monks of their Buddhist monasteries became the second most important officials in the Yuan Empire. The examination of officials for promotion became a formality. Thus, during the reign of Haisan during only one year, more than 880 people got into high government positions with the help of bribes and «brutalized like tigers». It is reported about 40 persons who pretended to be relatives of the emperor’s wives and used the power.( 2, p.56 ).
But the attempts of the closest Turkic entourage of Haisan, first of all Kipchaks and Kangli, the most influential of whom was Chzhanur, the head of the Kipchak guard of the Mongol emperors of China, to consolidate their positions at the court, won when he was elevated to the throne, were not successful. In 1311, after Haisan Khan’s death, Ayurbarvada ascended to the Yuan throne and reigned for a short time. After his death, the agreement was broken and not Haisan’s son, but Ayurbarvada’s son ascended the Yuan throne, which served as a ground for further palace coups. But, that is a subject for another story.