In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Sheibanid state formed close allied relations despite their distant location from each other. As it often happens, they were united by a common enemy in the person of the Safavid state. On the history of the alliance between the two states based on the analysis of Ottoman sources
The Ottoman-Sheibanid alliance had a strategic and religious basis. Difficulties of geography and constant internecine wars in Central Asia did not allow coordinating joint actions against the Safavids. Thereafter, close contacts between the Ottomans and Central Asian khans would continue until the Ashtrakhanid period. When transcontinental trade began to lose ground to maritime trade, the relevance of such an alliance also began to decline.
Context: Central Asia and the Middle East in the early sixteenth century
By the early sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was at the height of its power. Following their conquests in the Balkans, the Ottoman sultans turned their eyes to the East. Sultan Selim I made a successful conquest against the Mamluks, annexing Egypt. The Ottomans chose Persia, ruled by the Shiite Safavid dynasty, as their next target.Meanwhile, east of the lands of Iran, a confrontation was taking place between the Safavids and the Sheibanids of Central Asia. The sides were mainly fighting for control of Khorasan. It was the fact that the Safavid army was getting bogged down in the East that prompted Selim I to launch a campaign against Iran. However, due to unease in the army — especially among the Janissaries — the offensive had to be called off.
First contacts and the beginning of the alliance
The first exchanges of letters between the Ottoman sultan and the Uzbek khans of Maverannahr occurred during the first wars between the Ottomans and the Safavids. For example, in one of the letters addressed to the Sultan, the Sheibanid ruler Janibek ibn Abulkhair praises Selim I for his victory over the Safavids at Chaldiran. The letters also contain many references to the joint coordination of military actions against the Safavids. It is also necessary to note the ideological component, which will be traced in all further documents. The Ottoman and Uzbek rulers, in addition to the strategic importance of such an alliance, emphasized the need for a joint struggle against «heresy» — as they called Shiism.
The Sheibanid khans also identified the opening of an unobstructed route to Mecca as their sacred goal. The hostile relationship with the Safavids made it problematic for Central Asians to make pilgrimages.During 1520-1524, the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid state changed rulers. After the death of Selim I, his son Suleiman Kanuni (also known as Suleiman I the Magnificent) became sultan. After the death of Ismail I, the founder of the state, his son Tahmasp ascended the Safavid throne. Sultan Suleiman made several successful campaigns to Europe. Sheibanids did not stop fighting with Safavids and periodically raided the lands of Khorasan. In 1527 during the next campaign Uzbeks managed to take Merv, Mashhad, Astrabad, Sebzevar. However, during the campaign of 1528, the Sheibanids suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of Safavid troops at Jam. The Safavid army was then reinforced with artillery and firearms acquired from the Portuguese, which was a decisive factor in the conflict. However, Tahmasp was unable to build on his success as he had to return urgently due to the anti-Shia uprising in Baghdad.Further confrontation went on with mixed success for each side. The Shaybanids’ position deteriorated due to a series of internecine wars. By the early 1530s, the Safavids retained full control over Khorasan.
The Great Campaign on Iran
The Ottomans were concerned about their European enemies’ contacts with Tahmasp, as well as Safavid claims to the lands of Eastern Anatolia. Having made peace with European states and ended the war in the West, the Ottomans switched to the eastern direction.The Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire Ibrahim Pasha in 1532 began preparations for the campaign. In a letter declaring war, Sultan Suleiman threatened that he would set his tent not only in Tabriz, the capital of the Safavids, but also reach Samarkand.The Sheibanids also began active actions in Khorasan. Judging by the first results of the Sheibanid and Ottoman campaigns, they most likely coordinated their efforts. When Tahmasp was occupied in Khorasan, Ibrahim Pasha took Tabriz without much resistance.
The Sheibanids, in turn, achieved great success in Khorasan. In 1535, Ubeidullah Khan managed to take Herat and defeat the Safavid forces. He also reports this in a letter to the Sultan. However, shortly after the Ottoman army returned to Istanbul, Tahmasp regained control over Tabriz and Khorasan. Close contacts between the Uzbek khans and Istanbul continued thereafter. The rulers still made attempts to agree on joint actions against a common enemy. In the early 1550s, the Ottomans even sent a detachment of 300 janissaries and a group of cannoneers to support the Sheibanids. They had to reach Central Asia by circumnavigating the Caspian Sea from the north. However, instead of effectively using the experienced detachment in battles against the Safavids, the Khans decided to resort to their services in internecine wars.