In the XII century the territory of the Mongolian steppes was inhabited by a number of tribes — Hamag-Mongols (indigenous Mongols), Tatars, Merkits, Oirats, Kereits, Naimans.
To begin with, we should note that the Mongols proper (Khamag-Mongols) originally lived compactly in a relatively small area in the north-east of modern Mongolia and the south of Transbaikalia along the rivers Onon and Kerulen, which is mentioned in «The Hidden Tale» — a monument of the 13th century — which is a chronicle of the life and rise of Genghis Khan and his successor Ugedei.
To the west of the Mongols, in the area of the Tola River, as well as in the area of the middle course of the Orkhon River and the basin of the Ongiin-Gol River in the south, lived the Kereits. To the north of the Kereits, on the Selenga River, were the nomads of the Merkits. Even further north, near Lake Khubsugul, were the nomads of the Oirats. From the headwaters of the Selenga and Orkhon to Tarbagatai and from Tannu-Ola to the eastern spurs of the Altai stretched the nomads of the Naimans. Tatars lived in the area of lakes Buir-Nur and Kulun-Nur [Sandag Sh., 1977].
Different tribes in 1206 before the Mongol conquest.
The borders between these territories were not rigidly fixed, and individual groups could change their nomadic areas.
About the Naimans of the XII — early XIII century
At its peak (in the 12th — early 13th centuries), the Naiman confederation, along with the Kereits and Merkits, was a large state association. Naimans were one of the strongest nomadic tribes of Central Asia [V.V. Ushnitsky, 2011].
Naimans, who inhabited the territory of Mongolia in the XII century, are considered to be a former people with a fairly developed culture. Historians and archaeologists have established that they borrowed the basics of their culture from the Uighurs — their neighbors to the south. Naymans used the Old Uigur script, on the basis of which later appeared the so-called Old Mongolian script. Even earlier, in 1007, the Naimans adopted Nestorian Christianity, which unambiguously indicates a fairly high level of their social and cultural development.
The Naimans were also no strangers to shamanic practices. According to the «Hidden Tale», shamans enjoyed the same influence among the Naimans, as they were able to summon the help of storms during the battle, using a magic stone.
The Naimans as a tribe that strongly resisted Genghis Khan and influenced the formation of Mongolian statehood and writing are presented in detail in the literature devoted to the Mongol era.
The first reliable information about the Naimans is left by Rashid-ad-din in the «Collection of Annals» of the XIII century:
«This tribe is a steppe tribe: some lived in the rugged mountains, others in the steppes …. Dwelt in the Great Altai, Karakorum … in the mountains of Alui-Ceras and Kek-Irtysh…. These Naiman tribes had their own honorable and strong sovereigns; they had a numerous and good army; their customs and habits were similar to Mongolian ones. Their sovereigns in ancient days were called Kuchluk-khan — strong, great sovereign. Of the tribes close to the Naimans and whose yurts were connected with their yurts, was the tribe Bikin » [Rashid-ad-din. Collection of annals, T.1, p. 136-137].
Versions about origin of medieval Naimans
The Chinese from ancient times keep records not only about the life of their own people, but also of their neighbors. According to Chinese sources, the Naimans of the XI-XII centuries were relatives of the Onguts and together with them they were called «white Tatars». It is noted that many Onguts professed Nestorianism. According to the «Collection of annals», the Onguts were among the peoples «who not so long ago received the name of Mongols».
According to the definition of official documents of the Yuan dynasty, the Naimans belonged to the «motley-eyed» peoples (eren nyuduten). This group also included the Orus, Sergis, Kashmirs, Asu, Toba (Tibetans), Tanguds, Sartuls, Kypchaks, Karluk, Uigurs, Hanlins, and Orkhons. Historian from Inner Mongolia Saishyal considers Altaians as probable descendants of Naimans [Saishyal. Tale about Genghis Khan]. Thus he proves their Turkic-speaking and Caucasoid.
Historian V.V. Ushnitsky believes that the Naimans of the XII century felt the heritage of the great Turkic Khaganates. They continued to assign to their rulers ancient Turkic throne names: Buyuruk-Kagan, Kuchluk-Kagan, Inanch Bilge Buku-Kagan [V.V. Ushnitsky, 2011].
According to L.N. Gumilev, the Naimans of the XII century were Mongolian-speaking people, descended from Mongolian-speaking Karakitai, who after the destruction of the Qidan state Liao as a result of the Jin-Liao war (1114-1125) moved to Western Mongolia, forming a union of clans «Naiman».
Liao dynasty borders as of 1111 AD.
The Karakitai are closely associated with the Central Asian tribes of the Kidans (Tsi-Dan), mentioned in written sources since the 4th century as Mongolian-speaking tribes living to the north of China, on the territory of Manchuria and the Ussuri region. At the beginning of the 10th century, after the weakening of the Kyrgyz Kaganate, a vast territory from the Altai to the Pacific Ocean came under the rule of the Kidan state (Liao Empire). The union of the Kidans consisted of eight tribes (aimaks), which is definitely reflected in the name «naiman» from the Mongolian «naima» (eight). Thus, the succession of the Naimans from the Kidans also looks quite consistent.
Defeat of the Naimans by the Mongols
After the fall of the Liao state in 1125, the Naimans established their own state in the Altai, Western Mongolia and Eastern Kazakhstan to the west of the Kereits’ territory. In 1143 the ruler of the Naimans became the khan Inanch-Bilge-Buku, who took a position hostile to the Kereits, challenging them for hegemony over the nomads of Central Asia. As a result of successful actions, Inanch-khan managed several times to put his protégés on the throne in the Kereite state. However, after his death in 1190, the Naiman Khanate split into two parts, headed by the khan’s sons Buyuruk (Buyrek) and Baibuka (known in Chinese chronicles as Tayan-khan). The split weakened the Naimans, and in 1201 both dominions were defeated by the Mongols. However, the war between the Naimans and the nascent Mongol empire continued. In 1204 the Mongols defeated Tayan Khan, and Tayan Khan himself was killed.
The fate of Tayan-khan, the ruler of the Naimans, who, upon learning of Genghis Khan’s elevation, said in anger:
«It is said that in the northern side there are some there insignificant Mongols and that they as if frightened the ancient Orthodox great sovereign Van-khan with their sidaks and brought him to death with their indignation. Did he, Mongol, think of becoming a khan? Does the sun and the moon exist so that both the sun and the moon shine and shine in the sky at once? It is the same on earth. How can there be two khans on earth at once? I will come forward and bring here these, as they are, Mongols!» [The Hidden Tale, XIII c.].
The son of Tayan-khan Kuchluk left with the rest of the troops to his uncle Buyuruk-khan. In 1206 in battle with Mongols fell and Buyuruk-khan, after which the Naimans under the leadership of Kuchluk went from Hangai to Altai, where they joined the remnants of the Merkits and Kereits, and then to the Irtysh. In 1208 Genghis Khan defeated the united forces of Naimans and Kereits. A significant number of Naimans and Kereits remained in Eastern Kazakhstan and submitted to the Mongols. Kuchluk Khan with the remnants of his troops was forced to withdraw to Semirechye, where he took refuge in the state of Kara-Kidan and married the daughter of their ruler. Here the Naimans took a dominant position, but soon they were overtaken by Mongol troops. After several defeats Kuchluk was captured by Mongols led by Dzhebe-noion and executed.
Descendants of Naimans
Naimans of XII — beginning of XIII centuries settled practically all over Altai and Central Mongolia. Some part was in contact with Balkhash.
At the beginning of the XIII century Mongol expansion scattered the nomadic tribes of Naymans across the appanages and uluses, fragmented them into «thousands» and «tumens». The Mongols moved large masses of Naimans to new habitats, and further ethnic processes mixed them with other peoples.
Many Naimans became part of the Chagatai ulus. Groups of Naimans were noted by sources in Maverannahr as early as the fourteenth century. Some served in Tamerlane’s army.
Thus, the habitat of the population of the Naiman Khanates of the XII — early XIII centuries does not coincide with the habitat of the sub-ethnic group of Kazakhs — Naimans living in Eastern and South-Eastern Kazakhstan.
The majority of modern Naimans within both Turkic and Mongolian peoples are certainly not direct descendants of the Naimans who inhabited the territory of Mongolia in the XII and early XIII centuries, they got their name from individual batyrs — representatives of the Naimans who headed alien clans.
«Genetic studies have shown that Kazakh Naimans have at least three unrelated founders, and only one is related to Y-chromosome variants characteristic of medieval Mongolian peoples,» shares Maksat Zhabagin, an employee of the National Center for Biotechnology of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
According to the data for 2017, the most common haplogroups in the Naimans of Kazakhstan are two haplogroups: O2a2b1-M134 (42%) and C2-M217 (37%).
Judging by haplogroup O, the direct ancestor of Naimans in the male line comes from East Asia. According to J.M. Sabitov, haplogroup C2 is associated with a huge array of Mongolian tribes of the XIII century, which spread this haplogroup over the territory of the Mongol Empire.