The evolution of steppe warriors: the transformation of the Dzungaria military arsenal
The history of the military art of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia spans thousands of years. From the Scythians and Xiongnu to the empire of Genghis Khan, steppe warriors repeatedly created powerful states, relying on the advantages of their mobility, endurance, and unique military traditions. However, by the 17th century, the classic model of a nomadic army, built around light cavalry armed with bows, began to give way to the armies of sedentary states with their firearms, regular infantry, and artillery.
At this critical moment in history, one of the nomadic peoples, the Dzungars (Western Mongols or Oirats), managed to undergo an impressive transformation, adapting their military art to the new realities and creating a unique military complex that combined the traditional advantages of nomads with the latest technologies.
Until the mid-17th century, the weapons of the Dzungar warriors differed little from the arsenal of their eastern tribesmen, the Khalkha Mongols. The basis was traditional nomadic composite bows, sabers, spears, and lamellar armor consisting of many small metal or leather plates connected by lacing. This weapon system, honed over centuries, was ideally suited to the mobile tactics of the Mongol peoples, which were based on maneuverability, speed, and the ability to strike from a distance.
However, the geographical location of Dzungaria at the crossroads of civilizations—between China, the Russian lands, and the Muslim states of Central Asia—created unique conditions for military-technological innovations. As early as the second quarter of the 17th century, elements of weaponry uncharacteristic of the Eastern Mongolian tradition began to appear in the Oirat armies: chain mail armor (bekhtertsy), chain mail, and pikes. These items were borrowed both from the arsenal of Central Asian states, primarily the Bukhara Khanate, and through trade with Russia, where they were manufactured by the so-called “yasachnye people” – blacksmiths from the Siberian peoples subordinate to the Russian state.
A fundamental change in the military affairs of the Dzungars occurred in the 1660s and 1670s and was associated with the widespread introduction of hand-held firearms. Historical sources link this to a series of Oirat-Kazakh-Bukhara wars, during which the Dzungar rulers became convinced of the effectiveness of firearms, especially in defensive actions from fortified positions. It is noteworthy that the very idea of using firearms by nomads was not fundamentally new—even the Mongols of the Genghis Khan era demonstrated an impressive ability to borrow and quickly adapt the military technologies of conquered peoples, such as siege techniques from the Jurchen. However, the scale of the rearmament of the Dzungar army is truly astonishing.
According to contemporary accounts, the number of Dzungar riflemen armed with guns reached 20,000, and according to some sources, even 30,000. The latter figure seems doubtful, given that the total number of the Dzungar army during this period was estimated at 40-50 thousand soldiers. Nevertheless, even with more conservative estimates, we are talking about an unprecedented level of introduction of firearms for nomadic peoples.
Russian sources of that time consistently emphasize this aspect of Dzungar military affairs, especially when compared to their Eastern Mongolian tribesmen: “And the Kalmyks (Dzungars) are much stronger than the Mongols (Khalhas) in military affairs and have a lot of firearms from the Bukharans,” “…the Kalmyk Boshohtu Khan with his people defeated the Mongol Khan with a lot of firearms…” This qualitative difference in armament largely predetermined the outcome of the confrontation between the western and eastern Mongols, which ended with the conquest of the Khalkha Mongols by the Manchu Qing dynasty.
At the beginning of the 18th century, the Dzungars established the production of rifles and muskets on their territory, but in the 17th century, the main source of firearms was imports from Central Asian states and Russia. It is noteworthy that a significant part of Russian weapons entered Dzungaria through smuggling. Bukhara merchants, whom the Russian authorities, unlike Mongolian envoys, did not dare to subject to thorough inspection, were actively engaged in purchasing firearms in Moscow. Until the early 1680s, large shipments of up to 30 carts of guns and ammunition were regularly sent to Dzungaria.
In addition to introducing firearms, the Dzungar army was distinguished by its complex structure, which included various types of troops. Based on Manchu miniatures depicting military clashes with the Oirats, it can be concluded that the Dzungar musketeers did not wear heavy armor and were not equipped for hand-to-hand combat. Therefore, in battle, they were covered by warriors with spears and pikes. An interesting detail confirming the widespread use of long-shafted weapons in the Dzungar army: on the eve of the Battle of Ologoy, pikes from the khan’s arsenals were even issued to Russian envoys who happened to be with the army at the start of hostilities.
The following main elements can be distinguished in the general structure of the Dzungar army: mounted archers armed with rifles (who moved on horseback but dismounted in battle); traditional mounted archers; heavily armed horsemen (armored soldiers) armed with long and short bladed weapons, as well as spears and pikes. In addition to ethnic Oirats, the troops of the Dzungar khans, in particular Galdan Boshoku Khan, included detachments of Kyrgyz, Bukharans, and Khalkhas who had defected to Dzungaria. These auxiliary contingents complemented the main Oirat forces, bringing their unique military traditions and skills.
Thus, by the end of the 17th century, the Dzungar army was a complex and well-balanced military system that combined traditional elements of nomadic military art with the advanced technologies and tactical developments of sedentary civilizations. This allowed the Dzungar Khanate to become the dominant force in Central Asia and challenge the region’s major powers, the Russian and Qing empires.
Revolution in the steppe: the introduction of firearms and its consequences
The introduction of firearms into the Dzungar army is a rare example in history of a successful military-technological revolution carried out by a nomadic society. This process deserves special attention because it not only changed combat tactics but also transformed the entire military organization and ultimately influenced the geopolitical situation in Central Asia.
Although the exact date of the beginning of the mass introduction of “fire fighting” in the Dzungar army remains a subject of debate, most researchers associate this process with the reign of Sengge Khuntaiji (1653-1670) and especially his brother and successor Galdan Boshokt Khan (1670-1697) . It was during this period that the Dzungars conducted a series of successful military campaigns against the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Bukharans, during which the Oirat military leaders were able to observe the effectiveness of the use of hand-held firearms by the troops of the Central Asian states.
The types of firearms used by the Dzungars were quite diverse. Russian sources mention “pishchali,” “muskets,” and simply “guns.” Judging by archaeological finds and pictorial sources, these were mainly matchlock guns with a straight stock, a long barrel, and a caliber of about 12-16 mm. Such guns provided fairly high accuracy and lethality at a distance of up to 100-150 meters, which significantly exceeded the effective range of the traditional Mongolian bow.
The process of training Dzungar warriors in the use of new weapons was probably carried out with the help of foreign instructors. Historical sources mention the presence at the court of the Dzungar rulers of “Bukhara gunners” and even European specialists, in particular Swedes who found themselves in Siberia after the Northern War. These people not only helped to establish the production and repair of firearms, but also taught Oirat warriors the basics of shooting, gunpowder manufacturing, and the rules of gun maintenance.
The issue of organizing the production of firearms and ammunition directly in Dzungaria deserves special attention. While in the early stages of rearmament the Dzungars were completely dependent on imports, by the end of Galdan Boshokt Khan’s reign there was evidence of the existence of their own armories. During the reigns of Tsavan Rabdan (1697-1727) and Galdan Tseren (1727-1745), the production of guns and even artillery pieces in Dzungaria was put on a regular basis.
The urban settlements of Dzungaria, such as Kulja (Gulja), became centers of firearms production, where craftsmen were concentrated—both local and foreigners who had been captured or voluntarily entered the service of the Dzungar khans. Masters from East Turkestan, who had long traditions of metalworking and weapon production, were especially valued.
An important aspect of the rearmament of the Dzungar army was ensuring a stable supply of gunpowder and lead. Gunpowder was initially purchased in Bukhara and Russia, but over time, the Dzungars mastered its production. The main components—saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal—were available within the khanate or in the regions under its control. Lead for bullets was mined in the Tien Shan and Altai mountains, where the Dzungars controlled several mines.
The introduction of firearms required Dzungar military leaders to develop new tactical techniques that took into account both the advantages and limitations of this type of weaponry. The main problem was the low rate of fire of matchlock guns, which required lengthy reloading. To compensate for this shortcoming, the Dzungars developed mixed battle formations, where archers operated under the protection of traditional mounted and foot soldiers armed with cold weapons.
Another important innovation was the use of field fortifications—a kind of steppe “wagenburg” created from pack animals, carts, and portable wooden shields. Such fortifications allowed the Dzungar archers to fire accurately from relatively safe positions, inflicting damage on the enemy even before close combat began.
Firearms had a significant impact on the social structure of Dzungar society. Traditionally, in Mongolian states, military service was the duty of all adult men capable of bearing arms. However, handling firearms required special training and skills. This led to the emergence of a category of professional warrior-archers in the Dzungar army, who were paid from the khan’s treasury and were not involved in traditional nomadic farming.
It can be argued that it was thanks to the successful introduction of “fire combat” that the Dzungar Khanate achieved impressive military successes in the late 17th and first half of the 18th centuries. Particularly noteworthy are the Dzungar victories over the technologically advanced army of the Qing Empire in the battles of Zhaoiyodo (1690) and Ulan-Butoon (1696). In these battles, the firepower of the Dzungar archers allowed them to effectively counter the numerically superior Manchu troops, who were armed with similar weapons.
Tactical skill: battle formations and techniques of the Dzungar commanders
The Dzungar commanders developed a unique tactical system adapted to the realities of steppe warfare with the use of firearms. This system took into account both the traditional strengths of the nomads—mobility, endurance, and excellent knowledge of the terrain—and the new opportunities provided by “firepower.”
Unlike the Eastern Mongolian armies, which continued to rely on traditional methods of warfare, the Dzungars showed remarkable flexibility in their tactics. In the west, against the Kazakhs and Central Asian states, they more often used mobile raids by their heavy cavalry, striking swiftly and retreating quickly before the enemy could organize effective resistance. On the eastern front, against the numerically superior and technologically advanced armies of the Qing Empire, the Dzungars preferred to fight defensive battles, using natural barriers and field fortifications, and then launching decisive counterattacks.
The main tactical formation of the Dzungar army on the battlefield was a two-line arrangement of troops. The first line usually consisted of musketeers and spearmen, arranged so that the flanks were advanced toward the enemy and, if possible, protected by natural obstacles such as swamps, forests, mountains, or steep river banks. This arrangement made it difficult for the enemy to maneuver around them and allowed for the most effective use of firearms.
The positions of the first line of shooters were fortified whenever possible. Either natural folds in the terrain or artificial barriers—woven fences, earthen ramparts, or rows of carts—were used as cover. In the event of a sudden enemy attack, when there was no time to build fortifications, the Dzungars could use herds of cattle, which always accompanied the nomadic army, as a living shield.
The second line of the Dzungar battle formation was formed by heavy cavalry, consisting of armored horsemen with spears and bladed weapons. Its main task was to deliver a decisive blow to the flanks and rear of the enemy at the moment when its attack was stopped by the fire of the first line of archers. This combination of defensive tactics and a powerful counterattack allowed the Dzungars to effectively resist even a numerically superior enemy.