The Kipchak tribes occupied a vast territory from the Irtysh in the east to the Danube in the west. This territory was called «Desht-i Kipchak» (Kipchak Steppe) by Eastern authors. The natural border between the Eastern and Western Desht-i Kipchak was the Volga River [1]. Numerosity and militancy of Kipchaks allowed them to significantly expand their territorial possessions and to keep them for several centuries from encroachments of powerful neighbors in the face of Khorezm, Kievan Rus, state formations of Oguzes, Karluks, Karakhanids, Karakitai, Naimans, Kireites.
The Kipchak tribes were heirs of ancient Turkic state traditions. This can be traced by the presence of the dynastic family Yelbori in the Kipchaks (Ashina in the ancient Turks), the division of the Eastern Kipchak state into a center and wings [2], the identity in the ancient Turkic titulature of the Kimeks and Kipchaks (Shad-tutuk, Baigu, Hakan) [3].
At the beginning of the XIII century the political situation changed dramatically due to the increased power of the tribal union of Mongols led by Genghis Khan. The Mongols’ successes in conquering neighboring territories inevitably brought the borders of the Mongol Empire closer to the borders of Eastern Desht-i Kipchak, and the clash was inevitable.
The first appearance of Mongols on the border of Kipchak possessions dates back to 1211, when the Mongols led by Khubilai-noyon appeared in Semirechye. The leader of the Karluks, Arslan Khan, came over to the side of the Mongols. However the long-term war in China has prevented Genghis Khan to continue movement to the east [4]. In 1216 Genghis Khan’s eldest son Juchi sent his troops to the Turgai steppes [5] pursuing the retreating Merkits, the worst enemies of the Mongols. Merkits were supported by Kipchaks, however Djuchi managed to break them. On the Irgiz river there was a chance meeting of Mongolian armies of Juchi and armies of Khorezmshah Mohammed [6]. Djuchi having less forces and not having received instructions to enter the war with Khorezm, avoided the battle. But Khorezm Shah forced him to fight. The battle did not reveal the winner, Juchi under the cover of night hid, leaving Mohammed in bewilderment and confusion [7]. In 1218 Mongols led by Dzhebe yon expelled from Semirechye Khan of Naimans Kuchluk, who usurped the Karakitai throne [8].
Further historical events show inevitability of collision of two largest for its time states of Khorezm and Mongolian Empire. Clash of Juchi and Khorezmshah Mohammed did not lead to the declaration of war. This was due, in our opinion, to ignorance of the military potential of the rivals. For the purpose of exploration, the parties exchanged embassies and concluded a peace treaty for the purpose of unimpeded and safe trade. In this treaty it was prescribed that Genghis Khan calls Khorezmshah Mohammed «his son», i.e. vassal [9].
Following this Genghis Khan sent a trade caravan headed by Omar-Khoja Otrari, Jamal Maragi and other merchants. There were 450 people in the caravan in total. In the summer of 1218 the caravan arrived in Otrar. The governor of Otrar Gayir-khan Inalchik [10] suspected merchants in espionage, ordered to kill them and plunder the caravan. Genghis Khan indignant actions Gayir-khan has demanded his extradition. However Khorezmshah did not extradite Khan and ordered to kill the Mongolian ambassadors. This was the reason for the war [11].
In our opinion, Gaiir Khan had no other choice but to kill the merchants, as they certainly received the task to collect intelligence about the state of the army, defense capability, economy, social status of the cities of Khorezm. Although Muslim sources accuse Gaiir Khan of greed and consider him the main culprit in unleashing the war, I.P. Petrushevsky is of the opinion that the caravan served to collect information about the forces of Khorezm and Gaiir Khan killed the merchants not without reason [12]. It is safe to call the caravan of Mongols provocative. Genghis Khan by that time already had sufficient information for planning of military actions by attraction on the side of merchants and defectors from Khorezm. Whereas Khorezmshah was in complete ignorance and was content with semi-fantastic rumors spread by the Mongols and the Merkits, Naimans and Kireites who had fled from them.
Muhammed was not able to give out Gayir-khan, as he was supported by the mother of Khorezmshah — Terken-khatun, a representative of a noble Kipchak family, who was a relative of Gayir-khan, the leader of the Kipchaks who went over to the side of Khorezm [13]. Kipchaks occupied leading positions in Khorezm, constituted the military elite of the state, guarded its borders from related Kipchaks who did not accept Islam and feuded with Khorezm Shahs.
For the campaign to Central Asia Genghis Khan gathered a huge army [14]. All this army was concentrated in the spring of 1219 on the Irtysh River. In September, 1219 movement to Syr-Darya began. The main army of Genghis Khan struck from the north, and the corps of 20000 warriors of Jebe Noyon struck from the east diverting significant forces of the army of Khorezm on itself [15]. Khorezmshah Mohammed, possessing a superior army, secured rear and fortified cities, made a fateful decision to wage a defensive war in the hope that it would wear down the enemy and he would leave Khorezm. The scattered troops without centralized leadership lost morale and suffered one defeat after another. The Mongols, with the help of auxiliary forces represented by the local population and Chinese engineering forces, took one city after another.
Heroic in its scale and duration of defense, almost five months, is the defense of the city of Otrar under the leadership of Gayir Khan, in the city was concentrated from 20 to 50 thousand soldiers. The basis of the garrison of Otrar were Kipchak warriors, it was on their share fell the heroic defense of the city from the Mongols. According to the Persian author Juveini, the Mongols encircled Otrar with several rings of troops and continued the siege day and night. The betrayal of Karacha-hass-hajib sent with ten thousand soldiers to support the garrison, which opened the gates to the Mongols accelerated the death of the defenders. 20000 thousand warriors led by Gayir Khan took refuge in the citadel. Leaving with two friends he fought until he was captured and brought to Genghis Khan, who subjected him to martyrdom [16].
Seven days and nights lasted the siege of Sygnak — the center of Prisyrdarya Kipchaks. Djuchi killed all its defenders. The resistance of the Kipchaks did not end there. In 1221 Djuchi at the head of a large army went to the steppes of Kazakhstan to the north-east of the Aral Sea, where «the Kipchak people gathered and a battle took place. Dzhuchikhan won and killed all the Kypchaks who fell into his hands» [17]. Apparently, the Kipchaks were forced to unite in the face of universal danger and resist the enemy. United forces were gathered to the northeast of the Aral Sea, apparently, this is the territory of Central Kazakhstan in the area of Ulytau mountains. However, the preponderance of forces was on the side of the Mongols, and the Kipchaks suffered another defeat.
The first blow of the main forces of Genghis Khan was struck at Otrar and then Sygnak not accidentally, it was here was located the political center of the Kipchaks who were the backbone of the army of Khorezm. The destruction of the most combat-ready part of Khorezm Shah’s troops predetermined the decline of the state of Khorezm.
The source informs that Juchi loved free Kipchak steppes, ideal for nomadic life and wished to stay in Desht-i Kipchak, enjoying hunting on kulans [18]. To this day, the cause of Juchi’s death remains unclear. Even at life Genghis Khan has allocated to sons uluses. Djuchi got the lands of East Desht-i Kipchak. This territory has received in historical science the name Ulus Dzhuchi, Ulug Ulus and since XVI century — Golden Horde.
The brilliant transitions of the Mongolian army headed by Genghis Khan and corps of Jebe Noyon and Dzhuchi did not give an opportunity to join forces of Khorezmshah for a general battle, they were defeated one by one. Khorezmshah Mohammed ended his days at the end of December 1220 on an island on the south-eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. His mother Terken Khatun surrendered together with her family members in the summer of 1220 and was taken to Mongolia as a prisoner, where she lived a miserable existence and died a few years later. The son of Khorezmshah Jalal ad-Din fought against the Mongols until his last breath, was handed over by traitors and killed in August 1231 in the mountains of Kurdistan [19]. So the history of the ruling dynasty of Khorezm ended ignominiously.
Kipchaks were the backbone of the army of Khorezm Shah. Heroism of Kipchaks at defense of Otrar and Sygnak, in battles with Mongolian troops show high fighting spirit and patriotism of Kipchak warriors. The mediocrity of Khorezmshah Mohammed, the lack of a war plan, indecision and distrust of his own commanders led Khorezm to disaster [20]. It is noteworthy that Khorezmshah never gave a single major battle to the Mongols. Many cities and villages were wiped off the face of the earth. The population was partly killed, partly driven into slavery. These were the results of short-sighted policy of Khorezm Shah.
The resistance of the Kipchaks to the Mongols continued for a long time even after the conquest of Eastern Desht-i Kipchak.
The campaign of Jebe-noyon and Subudei-bagatur in 1220-1223 was accompanied by the conquest of new territories and a series of victories. In 1223 there was a battle on the river Kalka of the united forces of Russians and Kipchaks against Mongols. As a result of three-day battle Russian and Kipchaks were defeated and fled. Encouraged by successes Mongolian commanders have gone home through Volga Bulgaria. However Bulgarian have given worthy repulse to aliens, arranging ambushes using excellent knowledge of terrain and luring Mongols inland [21]. Defeat Jebe and Subudey did not stop Mongolian advance to the west. The collected information was later used in the preparation and carrying out of the western campaign of Batu. In the Mongolian source «The Hidden Tale of the Mongols» Batu’s campaign is called no other than «Kipchak campaign» [22]. In «Yuan Shi» Batu’s campaign was also named «Kipchak campaign». It has given the basis to T.T. Ollsen to come to a conclusion that subjugation of Kipchaks, instead of conquest of Russia was the main purpose of the western campaign begun in 1236 [23]. It indicates importance of Kipchaks in political plans of the Mongol Empire. Further historical events will show, that pursuit and conquest of Kipchaks has continued in Northern Caucasus, in Hungary and Bulgaria.
The Arab writer Ibn Wasil reports that «In 627 (1229-1230) the flame of war between Tatars and Kipchaks broke out» [24]. Thirty thousand corps Subudey Kukday and detachments of Ulus Juchi have gone to Caspian steppes. Russian annals date this campaign in 1229 and inform that under an onslaught of Mongols Kipchak Polovtses and Saksins (Khazar population on the Lower Volga) fled to the limits of Volga Bulgaria. In 1230 the armies of Ulus Dzhuchi again invaded the steppes between the Yaik and the Volga. Military actions in the Caspian steppes continued in 1232-1235, and advanced detachments of Mongols penetrated even on the right bank of Volga [25].
Consequently, with the fall of the state of Khorezm, a part of Eastern Desht-i Kipchak was still free and fought for independence from the Mongol invaders.
Before Batu, son of Dzhuchi-khan, prepared a campaign to the West, his cousins Guyuk and Munke went against the Kipchaks, Burtas and Mordva (Moksha) with a significant military contingent. Persian historian Juveini informs about subjugation of the lands of Bulgars, Asses, Alans, Russ and Kipchaks «… these lands have been released from troublemakers, and those who managed to avoid a sword, have bowed the heads and obeyed. Nevertheless, one of the leaders of the defeated Kipchaks, a man named Bachman, managed to escape from pursuit with a detachment of Kipchak warriors, and he was joined by other fugitives» [26]. Around Bachman rallied all those who suffered from the Mongols and took an active part in the anti-Mongol resistance. Rashid ad-Din says that Bachman came from the noble Kipchak tribe Olburlik [27]. Rashid ad-Din, Juwayni, speak about a large military action directed on capture and destruction of rebels: «Mengu kaan has ordered to make 200 vessels and on each of them to put on 100 people Mongols in full armament. He (himself) with his brother Buchek raided both banks of the river» [28] [28]. Luck turned away from Bachman, his family and relatives fell into the hands of the Mongols, his detachment was destroyed, and he himself was executed by the hand of Genghisid Buchek. It is interesting that Juweini sees in this execution a sacred meaning «When Bachman was brought to Mengu-kaan, he begged that the latter killed him with his own hands. Mengu-kaan, however, ordered his younger brother to cut him in two. These signs indicated the reason for the transfer of power and the keys of the empire to the Emperor of the World Mengu-kaan…» [29]. Rashid al-Din believed that this event took place in 1236-1237 [30].
If the versions of Juwayni and Rashid ad-Din are similar, the version of Chinese sources is different. In «Yuan Shi» and «Thun-tszyan-gang-mu» it is reported that Ugedey Khan specially directed against Bachman chingizid Batu and gave Subudey-Bagatur to help him. Ugedey-khan highly appreciated the agility and bravery of the Kipchak leader. Bachman (kith. Bachiman) falling into the hands of Mengu was not killed, but was taken prisoner. After capture he informs the future khan that it is necessary to leave the island otherwise the army can drown. Mengu followed the captive’s advice, took the army to the shore, and in fact soon the water arrived. Further nothing is reported about Bachman’s death. E.I. Kychanov notes with reference to «Yuan Shi», that he passed to the side of Mongols and even later some time ruled Russ and Aes [31]. Apparently, forces of rebels were very significant. Otherwise, why to direct 20000 thousand Mongol warriors and additional forces for subjugation of one detachment?
Together with Bachman, the leader of the Asses Kachir-ukule (Kachir-ule) fought against the Mongols. Probably, under Ases here are not the ancestors of modern ethnic groups in the North Caucasus, but the Kipchak tribe As 32, which was part of the tribal composition of the Kipchaks of Eastern Desht-i Kipchak [33].
Bachman, as the legitimate ruler of the Kipchaks from the Yelbori dynastic tribe, gathered significant forces of Kipchaks under his banners. Probably, the Kipchaks of Western Desht-i Kipchak joined the rebels. It is interesting that Bachman avoided direct confrontation with the Mongols in the steppe, and attacked unexpectedly and disappeared without a trace in the floodplain of the Volga or in the forests. This tactic was the only effective against an enemy accustomed to fighting in the open countryside.
According to Arabist K. Saki in the interfluve of the Urals and Volga in 1225 the future Sultan of Mamluks Baybars was born. Tribe Baybars has asked help from Bulgarian khan Anar with the request to allow to cross Crimean Sudak and to use customs lands. Khan has kindly offered the intermountain hollow, and during their migration treacherously has attacked them, many having killed, and many having captured. Among the captives was Baybars, who was about fourteen at the time. The captives were driven to the slave market in Sivas. Having crossed the Black Sea, captives were taken to the slave market in Aleppo (Damascus) [34].
A part of Kipchaks submitted to Mongols voluntarily, and subsequently took part in political and cultural life of states of Chinggisids. In «Yuan Shi» the detailed biography of descendants of Kipchak Khan Inasa vassals of Khubilai Khan is given. It is biographical information about grandson Inasa-khan Banducha, his great-grandson Tutukh and the third son Tutukh — Chzhuanur [35]. From this information follows that the descendants of Inasa Khan by diligent service achieved great heights in the career at the court of Mongolian khans, created and led the guard of Kipchaks and Kangla. Moreover, all conquered or alienated possessions with Kipchaks and Kangli were given to them. Tutukh’s army had 10000 mounted horsemen, they were used mainly at suppression of revolts of subordinates, for example Yenisei Kyrgyz or in internecine feuds of Chingizids [36].
The second son of Tutukh — Temur-Buga made a political career, and the son of Chzhuanur, El-Timur, became the second person in empire after emperor, he secretly led palace coups in 1230 and 1328-1330. In 1335, the suppression of the Kipchak palace clique took place and ended El-Timur’s domination of the imperial court. However, this did not end the Kipchak presence in China [37]. Among high-ranking military commanders and statesmen in Chinese sources are mentioned more Kipchaks Sidur, Ulchebadur, Kuchebadur, Hasan, Bakan and Katan. Among the famous figures of the Yuan culture the names of the Kipchaks — Taibuk, Bobohudu, Yantimur, Hasan and his son Bolanyi are mentioned [38]. According to calculations made on the basis of the study of Chinese sources I. de Rahevilts in the Yuan Empire in the service of the Mongols in high positions in the period 1200-1368 consisted 60 Kipchaks. They were mostly military commanders [39]. All this in general indicates the fact of significant presence and growth of influence of Kipchaks in the Mongol Empire.
Among the Kipchaks in the service of the Mongols were not only military leaders and cultural figures. Rashid ad-Din mentions Kipchaks who took part in the diplomatic embassy: «The head of the Kipchaks in the times of Genghis Khan was an emir from the Kipchak tribe named Kunjek, who was an elder [mihtar] of the umbrella-holders of Genghis Khan. He had a son named Kumurbish-Kunji; he was a skillful hunter. Once he was sent with an embassy to the sovereign of Islam, — may his reign last! [Both of them, [father and son], belong to the lineage of the sovereigns of the Kipchaks. However, Allah knows better and is wiser!» [40]. Probably, later exactly Kipchaks have played an important role in establishment of international communications between Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt [41].
Some representatives of the Kipchak elite managed to escape to neighboring countries. Dzhuzdzhani gives information about Ulug Khan, known as «Khan Yelbori and Shah Imekov», who as a young man fled from the Mongols from the territory of Kazakhstan to the Delhi Sultanate [42]. Part of the Kipchaks, as mentioned earlier, were sold into slavery.
The territory of East Desht-i Kipchak was divided between sons of Genghis Khan. Djuchi got the lands west of Irtysh up to Volga, Chagatai was allotted territories from Southern Altai to Amu Darya including Eastern Turkestan, most of Semirechye and Maverannahr. The north-eastern part of Semirechye went to Ugedei [43]. The most part of East Desht-i Kipchak went to Juchi and his descendants. At his son Batu this territory will be considerably expanded to the west behind Volga and will receive the name in historical sources «Golden Horde». The steppe population became part of the Ulus Dzhuchi and took an active part in the conquering campaigns of the Mongols.
Having been defeated by the Mongols, the Kipchaks retained their ethnic appearance and traditions of material and spiritual culture, which was superior to that of the Mongols. Within a few generations, the conquerors were assimilated by the local population and lost their language, traditions and customs. This was noted by the Arab writer al-Umari: «In ancient times this state was the country of the Kipchaks, but when the Tatars took possession of it, the Kipchaks became their subjects. Then they mixed and interbred with them and the land prevailed over their natural and racial qualities, and they all became exactly Kipchaks, as if they were of the same [with them] kind, from the fact that the Mongols settled on the land of Kipchaks, intermarried with them and stayed to live on their [Kipchaks’] land» [44]. [44].
Thus, the conquest of Eastern Desht-i Kipchak was not a one-time action, but a lengthy in time and huge in territory purposeful policy of the Genghisids. At the first stage, the Mongols defeated the neighboring Naiman Khanate, the Merkits, the Karakitai state and Khorezm. The second stage saw the conquest of the very territory of Desht-i Kipchak by Juchi’s troops, and then continued under his son Batu. At the third stage, a number of major uprisings and pockets of resistance of the Kipchaks in alliance with other tribes and peoples were suppressed. It was the conquest of the Kipchak tribes that became the main goal of the Mongols in their campaign to the west. The Mongols first of all sought to destroy the power elite of the Kipchak society by physical destruction, as was the case with Gaiir Khan, or by bringing them into their service as vassals, which can be traced back to the example of the descendants of Inasa Khan.
As a result of the conquest of Eastern Desht-i Kipchak, the entire Kipchak population was brought into submission, large-scale ethnic migrations of Turkic and Mongolian tribes were carried out, and the borders of many Eurasian states were changed and eliminated. Destruction of cities, destruction of farming centers, mass cattle raiding, imposition of heavy taxes and levies on the population had a negative impact on the economic development of the local population. Urban oases of Southern and South-Eastern Kazakhstan were destroyed, the population was partly killed, partly taken into captivity. The survivors were forced to serve the new aristocrats Genghisids. Part of the Kipchaks was called to pay the tax «by blood», i.e. to serve in the Mongol army, to participate in the conquest of new lands. Many nomads were forced to leave their native lands and flee to foreign lands. Those who resisted were killed by the Mongols.
However, having suffered a political defeat from the Mongols, the Kipchaks managed to preserve their material and spiritual culture, language and folklore. The Mongols soon adopted the Kipchak culture, forgetting their own cultural peculiarities, and mastered the Kipchak language, which remained the language of international communication. Gradually, having twinned with the Kipchaks, the Mongols dissolved into the local ethnic environment.