The first credible Mongol invasion of Tibet took place in 1240. [Chen Qing-ying, 1996, p. 176]. 30-thousand corps of Ugedei’s son Godan under the command of Leje and Dorda-darkhan entered Central Tibet and reached Phanyul, the area north of Lhasa. The Tibetans put up resistance.
Tibet, Lhasa
The battles at Raden and Janlhakan monasteries ended with the burning of these monasteries. The monks were slaughtered and the neighborhoods around the monasteries were looted.
Mongol invasion of Tibet
The Mongols did not go further to Lhasa, perhaps it was an episode of the great war that at this time the Mongols were waging in the southern regions of Gansu and in Sichuan, areas adjacent to Tibet [Kuchera, 1970, p. 260].
There is another version of the letter, which stated:
«In this life … there is nothing more outstanding than to act in accordance with the way of King Jingir (Genghis). But since [Sakya-pandita] is a courteous lama who sees the path of salvation, [one should] invite Sakya-pandita.» [Ahmad, 1995, p. 91].
Sakya-pandita dared to go to Godan’s bet. We can confidently assume that he did it, wishing to save Tibet from ruin, to legitimize, if possible, the position of the Kong family and the Sakya school as a whole.
Just by this time, with the arrival of the Mongols, Tibet was once again ready for unification. Perhaps, in addition to economic factors, this was facilitated by the formation of Tibetan Buddhism in the 10th-12th centuries, despite the diversity of schools, it was Tibetan Buddhism. A repertoire of Buddhist literature in the native language appeared, seven monasteries operated, which were not isolated from each other and connected the country not only by Tibetan teachers of faith, but also by the production of common cult objects, crafts, trade, exchange between sedentary, semi-nomadic and nomadic parts of the population. The Tibetan nationhood was finally formed, and a concept emerged which was later expressed by Dalai Lama XIV in his autobiography: «My country and my people».
Along with Sakya-pandita, two of his nephews, Lodoi Gyaltsen, 10 years old, and Chagna, 6 years old, also went to Godan Khan. Upon arrival in Lhasa, Sakya-pandita ordained Lodoy Gyaltsen as a monk, according to legend, in front of the Buddha statue that Princess Wencheng brought with her to Tibet in the 7th century — after all, the way for all three of them lay to China.
By the arrival of Sakya-pandita Godan-khan built for him a monastery-residence Tulpe-dae, this monastery exists to this day. Sakya-pandita arrived in the Liangzhou area in 1245, but met Godan only in 1247 — he was in Eastern Mongolia at the Great Hural.
The Tibetan lama as if really cured Godan Khan of some disease. Godan granted Sakya-pandita power over all Tibet. It should be noted that Godan did not act as a khan of all Mongols, but only as a prince of Chinggisid, that is, the event (the gift) had really only a regional character, at least initially, until the matter passed into the hands of Khubilai.
As Prof. Hsiao Qi-qing notes, the Yuan Empire was not equivalent to the empire (state) of the Han (Chinese) nation. It was an empire ruled by Mongols, where along with them the so-called Semu — «colored-eyed», which included Uigurs, Karluk, Kipchak, Tangut, Kidan and Churchen, as well as Tibetans, at least those who lived in the «internal», Chinese lands, were included in the dominant stratum of society [Siao Qi-qing, 1998]. In the multinational empire, everyone lived according to their own customs.
The beliefs of medieval Mongols before Buddhism
Most of the subjects of the Mongol Empire during the time of Genghis Khan practiced — Tengerianism. Before Buddhism, for several centuries, Tengerianism, the belief in the «Eternal Blue Sky», was the religion of the Mongols. They held the belief that Heaven ruled the world and was the eternal source of life. Heaven is masculine, it bestowed life. Earth is feminine, it gives form. Genghis Khan, the first great khan of the Mongol Empire, talking to his loved ones, remarked that heavenly patronage was incomparable happiness.
Mongolia
All the people of Eastern Mongolia believed that the world around people was inhabited by spirits. Each valley and each mountain had its own spirit or master (sabdak). The master of a valley or mountain was the mountain or valley itself. Each place was a living body. The names of the spirits of the most revered sacred places were kept secret. They were not spoken aloud unnecessarily.
The cult of the sky is also recorded by the Orkhon inscriptions. A characteristic feature of Tengerianism is activity, perseverance, mutual assistance: «Tengri not only provides help, but also requires activity» (R. Bezertinov).
Historians have come to the consensus that Mongols in the time of Genghis Khan were tolerant of all religions in the countries that submitted to Mongol rule. The faiths of the subjugated peoples were never discriminated against. This may have been one of the reasons why Genghis Khan’s empire was able to conquer a vast territory and rule half the world.
Why did the Mongols choose the Sakya school?
According to Sh. Vira:
Tantric Buddhism practiced by the lamas of the Sakya monastery had certain advantages in the eyes of the Mongols.
First, it was more understandable to ordinary Mongols, because the Tibetans adopted Buddhism, adapting it to their society, which was very similar to the Mongolian society. Buddhism in Tibet incorporated much of the local beliefs. The Tibetan Bon and the Mongolian Bege-tenger, as folk religions, had much in common. Tibetan Tantric Buddhism with its magical and supernatural elements of Bon shamanism was more attractive to Mongol shamanists.
Second, the Tibetan lamas, especially the Sakya lamas, adhered to the old traditions of Buddhism and were politically very active in seeking cooperation with the secular authorities, in this case the Mongol rulers» [Viga, 1999, p. 212].
At this point there is no doubt that among the mentors in the faith of the last Xi Xia (di shi) emperors there were also Tibetan lamas. One of them (or some of them) after the death of Xi Xia in 1227 returned to Central Tibet, and the refugees from Xi Xia were there as well. The lamas who returned from Xi Xia were sympathetic to the Sakya school. They played a great role in establishing contacts between the Sakya and the Mongols. It is known that Prince Godan was recognized as a reborn of the last Tangut emperor [Sperling, 1987, p. 34-37].
Having received from Godan Khan the power over Tibet, Sakya-pandita was not at all sure that everyone in Tibet would recognize it. He sent a message to the secular rulers and spiritual authorities of Tibet, in which he did not ask for recognition of Sakya’s authority, but emphasized the possibilities of preaching the Buddhist faith among the Mongols. In return, however, he expected to receive the Mongols’ help in worldly affairs:
«The Tsarevich told me that if we Tibetans help the Mongols in matters of religion, they will in turn support us in worldly affairs. In this way we are given the opportunity to spread our religion farther and farther. The Tsarevich has just begun to study and understand our religion. If I stay here further, I am confident that I will be able to spread the Buddha’s faith beyond Tibet and thus help my country. The king allows me to preach my religion without fear and provides me with everything I need. He explained to me that it is in his power to do good to Tibet, and it is in my power to do good for him. He has complete trust in me. In the depths of my heart, I believe that the tsarevitch wishes to help all countries. I preach tirelessly among his descendants and dignitaries, but I am old and unlikely to live long. Do not be afraid, for I have taught all that I know myself to my nephew Pagpa.»
At the same time, he frightened his compatriots, informing them that «the armies of the Mongol Khan are countless», the Mongols had already conquered the whole world, and therefore they should pay tribute and cooperate with their representatives — Ser yig pa (Tib. Gser yig ra) — bearers of golden paizzas certifying their power [Shakabpa, 1967, p. 64].
Let us emphasize once again that it was not a treaty between the Mongol Empire and its supreme ruler and Tibet, it was a personal agreement of Godan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, with one of the Buddhist leaders of Tibet, a hierarch of the Sakya school. Godan asked to do good for him personally, and in exchange for that he promised to do good to Tibet, in other words, in that environment it was realistic to save Tibet from ruin on condition of its voluntary submission, i.e. in the same way as it was with the Uighurs, the Karluk Turks, and others.
During the reign of Khubilai Khan
The next stage in the establishment of Mongol control over Tibet is associated with the name of Khubilai.
Khubilai Khan; Chinese. 忽必烈，23 September 1215 — February 18, 1294
Even Sakya-pandita gave Khubilai instruction in the Buddhist faith.
His nephew Pagpa-lama introduced Khubilai to Buddhism in the summer of 1253. It is not known how the nephew of Sakya-pandita came to Khubilai’s bet. But not being an emperor yet, naturally not being an all-Mongol khan (he was Munke), Khubilai in 1254 confirmed the transfer of power over Tibet to Pagpa-lama, the nephew of Sakya-pandita, and in the person of Pata-lama to the house of Sakya. This was done not on behalf of the All-Mongol Khan, but personally from Khubilai, the Chinggisid who had been entrusted with the conquest of the Chinese state of the Southern Song.
The document for the grant stated:
«As a true follower of the Great Buddha, the omnipotent and invincible ruler of the world (here Khubilai clearly exaggerates his powers. — E.K.), whose power like sunlight penetrates into all dark corners, I have always shown a special love for the monasteries and monks of your country.
Believing in the Divine Buddha, I received instruction from your uncle Sakya-pandita, and in the year of the Water-Bull (1253) I took a course of study from you. Having received instruction from you, I am even more confirmed in my desire to continue helping your monks and monasteries, and as a reward for what I have learned from you, I must give you a gift. So this letter is my gift to you. It guarantees you authority over all of Tibet, allows you to protect the religious institutions and faith of your people, and to preach the teachings of the Divine Buddha.
The monks and people of Tibet should be informed of what I have done for them, and I hope that they will not seek for themselves any other ruler than you…. Those who know the Buddha’s teachings should try to spread them, those who do not know should try to learn all they can. Everyone should read, write and devote themselves to contemplation, pray to the Buddha and also to the monks for me…
To the monks I should tell them that they should be grateful for not being taxed and realize this. No one should change the way of life they have adopted. We Mongolians will cease to respect you if you monks do not conscientiously follow the Buddha’s teachings. Don’t think that we Mongolians are incapable of learning your religion. We will gradually learn it…
Since I have been chosen to be your patron, it is your duty to fulfill the teachings of the Divine Buddha. With this letter, I am entrusting myself as the patron of your religion. Ninth day of the middle month of the summer of the Water-Tiger year (1254).» [Shakabpa, 1967, p. 65-66].
This document on the subordination of Tibet not to China, but to the Mongol ruler contains curious moments.
As a Chinggisid, Khubilai believes himself to be the «ruler of the world» granted to his grandfather, Genghis Khan, by Heaven. Those who submitted to the Mongols voluntarily followed the will of Heaven. Those who disobeyed, the rebels who did not follow the will of Heaven, were to be forced to fulfill that will by force. Tibet was no exception: those who would not submit voluntarily would be forced to submit by force. Khubilai acts as a patron of the faith, who wants to help monks and monasteries in gratitude for the inclusion of him and his people in the teachings of the Buddha. Authority over Tibet is given to the Pagpa Lama so that he can protect and propagate the teachings and pray for Khubilai himself.
Khubilai and the following Yuan emperors banned Islamic practices such as Halal cutting, forcing Mongolian methods of animal cutting on Muslims and other strict measures continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Khubilai’s grandfather Genghis Khan explicitly called Muslims and Jews «slaves» and demanded that they follow the Mongolian method of eating rather than the Halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden.
Not all schools of Tibetan Buddhism were happy with Sakya and her policies, which were considered blatantly pro-Mongol, even though other schools also tried to gain the patronage of Khubilai and other Chinggisids.
A famous pamphlet in verse was written on Pagpa-lama by a monk from the Nartan monastery named Chomden Rigrel. The pamphlet used the name Nagla, which means «Exceptional»:
«The sunbeam of the Buddha’s faith was hidden behind the clouds of the Kagyupa school.
People have been deprived of peace and happiness because of the greed of officials.
Today even the monks dress like Mongol leaders.
And therefore He who does not realize this,
is not «Exceptional,
Though He bears such a name!»
The Pagpa Lama also replied in verse:
«The Buddha Himself affirmed that there will be periods of
Both the rise and fall of faith.
People’s peace and happiness depend on the laws of karma,
not in the hands of bureaucrats.
To convert the Mongols to our faith,
I must dress like a Mongol.
And so he who does not understand this
must be a man who lacks intelligence!» [Shakabpa, 1967, p. 67-68].