It is quite possible that the Hunnic empire, which was an alliance of 24 tribes and was divided into two parts (eastern and western), was formed long before the beginning of the new era. In any case, by 822 BC, the Huns were already strong enough – this is the date of their first raid on China.
At the turn of the sixth and fifth centuries BC, the Celestial Empire was once again experiencing a series of Hunnic attacks. This is due to the fact that China itself was at that time engulfed in an internecine war between several small principalities. And while they were selflessly fighting each other, the nomads managed to achieve significant victories: they were able to capture 25 Chinese fortress cities and settle in them. At that time, their influence in China was so great that Princess Xuan-taihe, who ruled in one of the Chinese states, married a Hun prince. The princess wanted to get on her side the powerful Hun cavalry, with which she dreamed of conquering neighboring states. Of course, she partially succeeded in this, she really expanded her possessions, but now there were many nomads in her kingdom, whose way of life and way of life differed from that of the Chinese of the Yellow Valley. Xuantaiheu’s act reveals one curious feature of Chinese policy towards nomads, which in subsequent times caused the country a lot of trouble: Chinese emperors and appanage princes would use nomads in internecine strife, attracting mobile nomad cavalry to their side, inciting them against their Chinese opponents. When the money in the imperial treasury ran out or the neighboring emperor outbid the mercenaries, the Huns attacked their former benefactor.
The Huns themselves were a close-knit people. Each Hun tribe owned its own territory, through which it roamed, moving from winter camps to summer camps throughout the year in search of better pastures, but three times a year the tribal leaders gathered together for a council. During these days, they performed sacrifices for the entire Hun people, administered justice, solved geopolitical problems, declared war or peace, and in the event of the death of the former supreme leader, they elected a new one. In Chinese chronicles, such a supreme leader is called «shanyu» in the Chinese manner. It is by this title that the Hunnic leaders are known in Chinese literature, but historians suggest that in reality this title is «zen», and «shanyu» is a later distortion of the title of the supreme prince.
The unifier of the Xiongnu power was a Zen named Mode. It is strange that historians have not preserved the names of the former Hun leaders who ravaged China more than 600 years before the Fashion. However, after that first arrival of the Huns, the Celestial Empire experienced a long period of wars and devastation, and more ancient historical chronicles could simply perish in the flames of internecine wars. And who, in the conditions of an almost incessant war of all against all, needs information about the dynasties that ruled a neighboring, even dangerous people several hundred years ago?
The history of Fashion is told in Chapter 110 of Sima Qian’s «Historical Notes»[41].
He also calls Mode’s father Tuman shanyu, which is probably a mistake, because Mode is considered the first shanyu of the Huns. But one way or another, either Mode was the first known supreme leader (shanyu) and unifier of the Huns, or his father Tuman was the first. History has not preserved any information about Tuman’s predecessors (if there were any). However, it is possible that in this case Sima Qian was trying to compile several incomplete sources. According to one such source, the first shanyu of the Huns was Mode, according to another – Tuman. It is also quite likely that the chronicler arbitrarily put together two historical Huns in the image of a father and son who ruled successively. It can even be assumed that each of these shanyu ruled in one of the parts of the Hunnic state (eastern or western), and only a later compilation turned them into a dynasty. Unfortunately, we don’t know which version is correct. Nevertheless, according to the Shijing, Tuman unsuccessfully tried to kill his son by sending assassins to him, but when Mode survived by defeating several strong warriors in a duel, the father, admiring his son’s bravery, placed ten thousand warriors under his command[42].
Sima Qian
The prince created a new army from the soldiers entrusted to him, although he trained his soldiers in a very peculiar way. The main rule was the unquestioning repetition of his commander’s actions. To test his soldiers, the prince shot his own magnificent horse. Those who hesitated and refused to do the same were immediately beheaded. After some time, Fashion shot his beautiful young wife. And again, those who refused to follow his example were executed. Thus, only the most loyal warriors remained with the prince, and when, during a big hunt, Mode shot at his father, Mode’s army did the same – and his father Tuman died, completely riddled with arrows. The chronicler claims that this happened in 209 BC.
According to Sima Qian, the history of the Hun dynasty began with such a barbaric act. The chronicles have preserved other strange deeds of Maude. When the ruler of the neighboring Donghu people, under threat of war, demanded that Mode give him his best horse and his beloved wife, Mode agreed without objection, explaining: «Why spare one horse and one woman for the neighbors?» But when the same ruler coveted a small piece of Hunnic land, completely barren and, in fact, useless to anyone, Shanyu went to Donghu with a war and won. The reason for the war, as described by Sima Qian, looks ridiculously unreliable, because the problem of land for the steppe people was not as significant as for sedentary farmers. Indeed, China had long suffered from overpopulation, but the Huns could easily do without the piece of land Sima Qian was talking about. Therefore, the words of Maude: «The land is the foundation of the state, how can you give it away?», which the ruler of the Huns allegedly said before going on a campaign, is most likely just a legend. And the procedures set by Mode were such that he didn’t have to answer to anyone. It was Mode who declared himself the «sengir» (supreme ruler) of the Hunnic empire, and when he ruled, he had no competitors, and there were no dissenters in the country.
Sengir was surrounded by almost divine honor and bore several magnificent titles, such as «tankirkut» («having heavenly grace») or the long and majestic title «Born of heaven and earth, set by the sun and moon, the great Xiongnu sengir». Sengir was a military leader, made peace and declared war, signed treaties and single-handedly directed the state’s foreign policy, and was also the high priest of the Xiongnu people.
Mode, as the first sengir, is credited with creating the original code of Hunnic laws[43]. For the first time, the death penalty appears in it for such previously not considered serious offenses as violation of military discipline and evasion from military service – the war became more and more important for the Huns.
Further conquests of the Huns also affected the neighboring, mostly nomadic tribes of China. The Xiongnu subjugated the Yuezhi and Wusun in the west, and the Loufan and Bayan tribes in the south. The Hun possessions now encompassed the Han Empire in a semicircle. In addition, the Huns conquered the lands claimed by the Chinese emperors. A war between the Xiongnu and China has become inevitable. Now the powerful empire was not only left without the support of the Hunnic cavalry, but the Huns became the enemies of China. The war ended in 188 BC. the crushing defeat of the Han troops: the army led by Emperor Gaodi was surrounded at Mount Biden. Only the generosity of Maude, most likely connected with the Han dynasty by dynastic ties, allowed the emperor to escape. Under the terms of the peace soon concluded, China was obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Huns. After some time, Mode died and the Hunnic empire entered a period of interregnum, during which the Huns did not attack China, and the Han emperors continued to pay tribute to the Huns. The peace was broken in 123 BC by Emperor Wudi. The new war proceeded with varying success: the Chinese were able to oust the Huns from Ordos, but in 90 BC they suffered a crushing defeat at Mount Yanshan. The terms of the truce, dictated to the Chinese by a sengir named Hulagu, were even more enslaving for China, but China no longer had a combat-ready army, and the emperors were forced to agree to them.
Soon, the situation for the Chinese changed for the better – in 59 BC, a period of civil strife began in the Hunnic state, and in 51 BC, a sengir named Huhanye became a vassal of China.
By using the Huns, the Chinese weakened them at the same time. In 1 BC, the Chinese emperor received a Hun chieftain (Shanyu) named Wuzhulu in the Vineyard Palace and granted him 370 clothes, 30 thousand pieces of silk fabrics with a woven pattern, embroidered and plain, as well as 30 thousand measures of silk flaps. These gifts were payment for the military services of the Hunnic princes’ troops and were made repeatedly. But the contractual relations that had been established among the emperors of the Chinese «contending kingdoms» were harmful to the Huns, and the rich offerings for the destruction of recalcitrant Chinese provinces corrupted the Huns with mass killings and the luxury of paying for it. Here is how a Chinese defector complained to another Hun shanyu: «The number of Huns cannot be compared with the number of any of the Chinese provinces, but their strength lies in the fact that their food and clothing are different from Chinese and they do not depend on China for food or clothing. Now, Shanyu, you are changing the customs of your people, you have begun to wear Chinese clothes. If China sends you even a tenth of its belongings, then every single one of the Huns will be on the side of the imperial house of Han. After receiving silk and paper clothes from China, tear them up, run through thorny plants in them, show all the Huns that Chinese clothes are fragile and inferior in strength to wool and leather. If you get Chinese food, ignore it to show everyone that you prefer cheese and milk to Chinese food.»
But gradually the forces of China dried up, and therefore at the beginning of the 1st century AD the Xiongnu regained their independence. But already in 48, eight Southern Hun clans were again under Chinese rule. So the Xiongnu were divided into southern and northern. The northern Xiongnu did not remain free for long either. In 87-93, they were conquered by a coalition of Chinese, already known to us as the Xianbis and their neighbors, the Dinglins. Other northern tribes migrated to the west, where they mixed with the Ugric tribes of the Urals and the Volga region. The descendants of these Xiongnu would later conquer most of Europe.
Another part of the northern Xiongnu settled in Semirechye and Tarbagatai (East Kazakhstan) and founded their own state, the Yuan. This state existed until the end of the fifth century, when it was destroyed by the Turkic tribes. Most of the remaining Central Asian Xiongnu surrendered to the Turks of the Western Khaganate in the sixth century.
But the southern Xiongnu, having been replenished with their northern tribesmen – refugees at the beginning of the III century, caused China a lot of trouble.
China was going through hard times at that time. At the turn of the II–III centuries. China was on the verge of disaster, although until recently it was invulnerable to external enemies. The people were governed by fairly intelligent officials and scientists. There was noticeable progress in crafts and trade. The borders of the country were defended by a professional, well-trained and well-armed army, consisting of both young Chinese soldiers and barbarian cavalry, which included the nomadic tribes of the Huns, Xiangs, and Xianbians. In addition, China’s population numbered 50 million peasants, who could, if necessary, form a powerful militia. And now this unshakable greatness has collapsed. It all started with the fact that the eunuch ministers quarreled with the Confucian scholars. This ended with mass executions and expulsions of Confucians and their family members. Rejoicing at the defeat of their long-time opponents, the Confucianists, the Taoists led the uprising of the «yellow armbands.» The uprising lasted for 5 years (184-189) and was drowned in blood by the army and militia. The soldiers, feeling that they were a significant force in the country, killed the eunuch ministers and their own commanders who remained loyal to the emperor. The militia blocking the rebellious army in Chang’an did not allow them to turn around. The outbreak of the soldier’s rebellion was suppressed only in 196. After the defeat of the rebels in a decisive battle, the emperor ordered the execution of all surviving rebels. Against the background of the soldiers’ uprising in 191, the endless hostility of provincial aristocratic families began.
By 210, the most powerful aristocratic families had united around the three kingdoms. The northeast was ruled by Caocao, who arrested the last Han emperor and ruled on his behalf. He chose the words «Time and Heaven» as his motto, symbolizing destiny in Chinese culture, and attracted fortune seekers under his banner – brave and unscrupulous people who could quickly make a career and get rich in his kingdom. In 220, his son Caopei seized power and named his dynasty Caowei.
In the southeast, the commander Sun Quan created the kingdom of Wu, whose motto became the words «Land and Convenience.» Indeed, the geographical position of his country, covered by the Yangtze River, was very advantageous both economically and militarily. Sun Quan and his successors relied on the Confucians, but they only increased the chaos in the country with their endless palace intrigues.
The third kingdom (Shuhang) was formed in Sichuan by the Taoist leaders of the defeated Yellow Bandages movement. Realizing that they were doomed to fall under the rule of two other states, they agreed with the commander Liu Bei and his detachment to fight Caocao. Initially, the kingdom of Shuhang was located between the Han and Yangtze rivers, but after being defeated in several battles, the rulers of Shuhang relocated to Sichuan, a natural fortress surrounded by mountains. In Sichuan, Liu Bei was proclaimed emperor, but the actual ruler of Shuhang was the Taoist sage Zhugeliang. The motto of this kingdom became the words «Humanity and Friendship.» In Chinese historiography, the years of the Taoist kingdom are not considered successful, and the Taoist system of government itself is condemned. At the same time, the Taoist kingdom existed until 264, when it was conquered, after the death of Zhugeliang, by the troops of Cao Wei, who occupied Sichuan. However, the victory over Shuhang did not bring happiness to the Cao Wei dynasty. Internal squabbles at the court of the Cao Wei emperors led to a serious conflict in which rootless but well-armed soldiers defeated noble aristocrats. And one of the Cao Wei generals named Sima Yan deposed the last emperor of Cao Wei in 265 and proclaimed himself emperor of the new Jin dynasty. In 280, Sima Yan conquered the remnants of the collapsed state of Wu almost without a fight. However, after such long wars, the flourishing country turned into ashes.
The Huns who remained at the Chinese Wall hesitated with the Chinese people. They took an active part in the uprising of the «yellow armbands», and then, when it began to decline, they broke away from it, which largely led to the collapse of the uprising. Then the Huns joined the «soldier» dynasty of Caocao and supplied it with selected horses in 203 to upgrade the cavalry. In gratitude for their help, the Cao Wei emperors gave the Huns significant privileges. They were assigned vast pastures, divided into five appanages, each headed by a descendant of the Hun princes. And although each such prince had a Chinese official observer, relations were very warm, and uprisings broke out only twice: in 271, northern Shanyu Meng rebelled. However, he was killed by an assassin, and the uprising was thus suppressed. And 20 years later, the Hun shanyu Haosan rebelled, but his rebellion was nipped in the bud – he was captured and executed by his own elders. So, although the number of Huns living in the vicinity of the Great Wall of China was about 250 thousand people, the situation was calm. For the time being…
And so the Huns, united with other barbarian tribes, rebelled. The Hun rebellion was led by Liu Yuan, the grandson of the penultimate Shanyu of the southern Huns named Yufulo. In 290, he was appointed commander-in-chief of all the Huns in China.
Liu Yuan was proclaimed the great Shanyu by the Huns, and then, in 304, he assumed the title of Emperor of China (Wang) and gave his dynasty the name Han, on the grounds that his great-grandmother on the female line was a Han princess. The warring Jin princes were unable to assemble an army to fight the impostor. Meanwhile, Liu Yuan made Pinyang his capital and, having fortified himself there, in 310 he officially assumed the imperial title under the name of Gaozu and declared war on the Jin dynasty. As a result of several victories over the Jin, the Huns captured almost all of Northern China up to the Huai River. However, in the same year, Liu Yuan died, leaving the throne to his incompetent eldest son, Liuho. The new emperor’s main concern was the elimination of his more talented and popular brother Liuzong. However, Liuho himself was soon killed. It is quite possible that these intra-Hunnic squabbles were inspired by the emperors of China, who did not want to allow the rise of the Huns. In 311 The Jin Empire, taking advantage of the change of the Hun emperor, attacked the Huns, but the hostilities took an unpleasant turn for the Chinese and the Jin troops were ingloriously defeated, and the Huns under the command of Shile plundered the Jin capital Luoyang and captured the Jin Emperor Huaidi. The capital of the Jin Empire was relocated to Chang’an, where a new Mingdi emperor was elected. However, after 5 years, the Huns captured this city, and the captured Mingdi was executed after numerous mockeries and tortures. Then the Jin moved their capital to another city – Jiangkang (now Nanjing).
In 318, the deceased Liucong was succeeded by his incompetent son Liucan, but he was soon killed by his Chinese father-in-law Jinzhong, who also exterminated all members of the Hunnic royal family. Jinjun called on Jin troops to help. However, the Jin troops were slow either on purpose or due to unforeseen circumstances, and the Hunnic armies under the command of Liuyao and Shile marched against Jinzhong. Seeing that Jin’s help was late, Jinjun’s entourage killed him and gave his body to the Huns in the hope of leniency. Later, it was Liuyao who was proclaimed the Chinese emperor, and the dynasty he founded was called the Early Zhao. The following year, another Hun commander, Shile, proclaimed himself emperor. The dynasty he founded was called the Late Zhao. In 319-321, he fought a difficult war with the Jin commander Zuti, which ended with the death of Zuti. Just a couple of years after the end of this difficult war, the warlords of the Late Zhao, Shisheng and Shihu, attacked the lands of the Early Zhao and took possession of the northern part of Huaihe and Shandong, and by 329 Shile’s troops defeated the Early Zhao Dynasty, Liuyao was captured and killed, and his empire ceased to exist. During a long and serious illness that struck Shile in 330 and ended with his death in 333, the chief of the palace guard, named Shile’s brother by the name of Shihu, became the main person at court. After Shile’s death, he seized power and destroyed the family of the late emperor. Fearing to stay in the city, where there were many supporters of Shile, Shihu moved the capital from Xianguo to Ye (Yecheng). Shihu was a good commander, so in 334-339. He successfully repelled the attacks of the Eastern Jin, but the wars with the small Chinese kingdom of Early Liang and with the Xianbing state of Early Yan were unsuccessful for him. At the same time, Shihu became extremely suspicious and suspicious, so he executed his sons Shisui (337) and Shiyuan (347) on suspicion of plotting against him. In 349, Shihu died of nervous exhaustion, and his son from Liuyao’s daughter, a boy named Shishi, became the heir. Shizun, another son of Shihu, gathered a large army and attracted to his side Shihu’s adopted son, the Chinese Janmin, and marched against Shishi. After Shizun’s victory, the young emperor and his mother were executed. Soon, Zhanmin quarreled with Shijun and killed him, and then enthroned the new emperor, his brother Shijian. However, at the beginning of 350, the Chinese deposed this emperor and proclaimed himself the new emperor. The dynasty he founded was called Wei, or Janwei. One of the first decrees of the new Chinese emperor ordered the killing of all barbarians within the kingdom, as a result of which more than 200 thousand Huns were killed in the capital alone, including members of the Shi imperial family, and the Jie people were completely exterminated. However, two years later, this dynasty was destroyed by the Xianbing people.
And although the period of fragmentation in China continued for several more decades, however, at that time the Huns did not play a major role in the life of the country, because even ethnic Huns were Sinicized, took Chinese names and became Chinese in the first generation.