Emerging from the shadows
TOKTA (c. 1270–1312/13), Khan of the Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde) from 1291. He was one of the younger sons of Mengu-Timur and had no chance of ascending the throne. However, as a result of internal strife with his older brother Algu, who was supported by Khan Tula-Buga, he was forced to flee to his maternal grandfather, Ulusbek Saljida. The conflict with his brothers led him to form an alliance with the ulusbek Nogai. As a result of intrigue, the khan was captured during negotiations with Nogai and handed over to Toktei, who declared the khan and his supporters, including his older brother, traitors and executed them by “breaking their backs” without spilling blood. Contemporaries reported the words allegedly spoken by Tokta to Nogai: “As long as I live, I will be subject to my elder (aka) and will not go beyond the limits of what is pleasing to him.”
The khans of the four uluses: Temur (Yuan), Chapar (Ulus Ugedei), Tokhta (Golden Horde), Oljeitu (Ulus Hulagu).Getum Patmich, “Flower Garden of Stories of the Lands of the East”
Having received such an oath of allegiance, Nogai agreed to his ascension to the throne. He rejoiced. Unable to take the throne himself, he had gained a khan who was completely obedient to him. He brought Crimea under his control and, controlling international trade with Europe, became the de facto ruler of the country.
But Tokta was not so simple. Expressing signs of respect and agreeing to let his uncle marry Nogai’s daughter, he was hatching a plan for revenge.
The first step towards this was his struggle for the Russian principalities. By this time, taking advantage of Nogai’s enmity with Tula-Buga, various princes began to orient themselves towards different centers of power. The Moscow prince Dmitry, son of Alexander Nevsky, was on Nogai’s side and paid tribute to him. Meanwhile, Prince Mikhail of Tver sought support from the khan. To bring order to this situation and show that he was a strong ruler, Tokta organized a large campaign in 1293, led by his brother Tudan (known as “Dyudenev’s army” in Russian chronicles). The Tatar troops defeated Prince Dmitry and ravaged 14 cities, including Suzdal and Rostov. Mikhail of Tver tried to enlist Nogai’s support and negotiated with Moscow. In response, Tokta sent the troops of his other brother, Tokta-Timur, against him.
But Nogai realized that a conspiracy was brewing against him and believed that the khan was being turned against him by supporters of the former khan Tula-Buga. He demanded the execution of more than 20 beks. Tokta was forced to summon them to him, and Nogai treacherously “executed many Tatars,” including the widow of Mengu-Temur and other khans, Jijek-khanum.
But these repressions against the aristocracy and Nogai’s unprecedented strengthening caused discontent among the Tatar aristocracy. A wave of rebellions began. Once again, Nogai demanded that the disobedient beks be executed. But in this case, Tokta did not hand them over. According to Arab historians, “Tokta did not like being subordinate to Nogai; he tried to fight him and sought war with him.” Some of the beks opposed him but were defeated (1297). During this war, Nogai’s son Aktadzh was killed in Crimea. In response, Nogai ravaged the Crimean cities in 1298. According to Marco Polo, who relied on information from Italian merchants, they fought several times and Tokta suffered defeats.
But Nogai’s autocratic policies and his murders of aristocrats led to the elite of his ulus turning against him. The powerful beks from the Khurrumshi (Kurmysha) clan—Abadji, Karajin, Tunguz, and Taz—switched sides to Tokta and secured his victory. In the decisive battle in Podonye in the fall of 1299, Nogai was defeated and killed in battle with the khan’s army. According to rumors, he was killed by a Russian warrior fighting on Tokta’s side.
Nogai’s sons quickly quarreled among themselves and with the aristocracy, so they were unable to organize resistance to Tokta’s troops. Nogai’s son Jaka fled to Transylvania, where he was killed by the local ruler.
As it happened, the khan whom Nogai himself had brought to power, by the logic of events, turned against him and defeated him, ending the entire era of Nogai’s “equal khans.”
A reformer on the throne
Tokhtamysh ascends the Golden Horde throne after Nogai’s assassination
After a decade of civil wars and feuds, relative peace came to the Ulus of Jochi. It was time to restore order and heal the wounds of enmity. Tokhtamysh proved himself to be a skilled politician. He reconciled the warring clans and divided Nogai’s former possessions among his sons and brothers so that no one could become too powerful.
In 1320-1311, a monetary reform was carried out and a single weight standard for the silver dirham was established in all places where Jochi coins were minted. In fact, it remained in place for a hundred years. Most likely, these reforms were led by Ulug Karachibek Timur-Kutluk, who created an effective system of administration and tax collection. He and his brothers were Muslims, which shows that Islam had already become the religion of the elite.
These steps simplified monetary settlements and gave new impetus to trade with Mediterranean countries. To this end, Tokta settled relations with Yuan China, possibly formally recognizing the supremacy of the Great Khan. However, relations with the Italian trading republics were not always peaceful. In 1308, Tokta, dissatisfied with Genoa’s trade with Iran and coastal piracy, expelled them from Kafa and burned the city. But the benefits of mutual trade prevailed, and relations with the Hulaguids in Transcaucasia entered a stage of “cold war.” Although Tokta proclaimed Azerbaijan his domain, the threats remained rhetorical and did not interfere with the expansion of trade. In 1304, active diplomatic relations with Mamluk Egypt resumed. However, the parties failed to agree on a military alliance against Iran and limited themselves to words of support.
After a turbulent youth full of bloody wars and intrigues, Tokta sought to maintain peace and tranquility at the end of his life, preserving a fragile balance between Buddhism, to which he himself apparently leaned, and Islam, which was widespread in the cities and among the capital’s elite. According to his contemporaries, “he worshipped idols and stars, loved lamas, sages, and doctors.” Another later Persian historian noted that Tokta was “an extremely good-natured, patient, and dignified ruler.”
However, in 1312, concerned about the hostility between the princes of Moscow and Tver, he ordered an army to be assembled, intending to restore order in his domains. The troops were assembled and were to be led by his nephew Uzbek. But on August 9, 1312, Tokta died. Before his death, he intended to transfer power to his son Ilbasmysh. But he did not have time to do so, which had a fateful significance for the destinies of both the Ulus of Jochi and the whole of Northern Eurasia.